Homage to the Blessed One, the Worthy One, the Perfectly Self-awakened One

Canon of the Higher Teaching

Named Aṭṭhasālinī.

Commentary on the Compendium of Mental States

Introductory Discussion on the Undertaking of the Work

Introduction

Therein, in what sense is it Abhidhamma? In the sense of exceeding dhamma and distinguished dhamma. Here the prefix "abhi" conveys the meaning of exceeding and distinguished, As in such passages as "Severe painful feelings assail me, they advance and do not retreat" and "Of surpassing beauty" and so forth. Therefore, just as among many raised parasols and banners, the parasol that is of exceeding size and of distinguished colour and shape is called an "ati-parasol," and the banner that is of exceeding size and endowed with distinguished colours of various hues is called an "ati-banner"; and just as when many princes and devas have assembled together, the prince who is more exceeding and more distinguished in the attainments of birth, wealth, fame, sovereignty and so forth is called an "ati-prince," and the deva who is more exceeding and more distinguished in the attainments of lifespan, beauty, sovereignty, fame and so forth is called an "ati-deva," and a Brahmā of such nature is also called an "ati-Brahmā" - even so this dhamma too is called "Abhidhamma" in the sense of exceeding dhamma and distinguished dhamma.

For with reference to the Suttanta, the five aggregates are analysed only partially, not exhaustively; But with reference to the Abhidhamma, they are analysed exhaustively by means of the methods of the Suttanta analysis, the Abhidhamma analysis, and the interrogation. Likewise the twelve sense bases, the eighteen elements, the four truths, the twenty-two faculties, and the twelve-factored structure of conditions. Only in the analysis of the faculties there is no Suttanta analysis, and in the structure of conditions there is no interrogation. And with reference to the Suttanta, the four foundations of mindfulness are analysed only partially, not exhaustively; But with reference to the Abhidhamma, they are analysed exhaustively by means of all three methods. Likewise the four right strivings, the four bases of spiritual power, the seven factors of enlightenment, the Noble Eightfold Path, the four jhānas, the four boundless states, the five training rules, and the four analytical knowledges. Only here in the analysis of the training rules there is no Suttanta analysis. And with reference to the Suttanta, knowledge is analysed only partially, not exhaustively; Likewise the defilements. But with reference to the Abhidhamma, having set up the matrix by the method beginning with "knowledge-bases are of one kind," it is analysed exhaustively. Likewise the defilements by many methods beginning from the single category. And with reference to the Suttanta, the delimitation of planes is analysed only partially, not exhaustively; But with reference to the Abhidhamma, the delimitation of planes is analysed exhaustively by means of all three methods. Thus it should be understood as Abhidhamma in the sense of exceeding dhamma and distinguished dhamma.

From the standpoint of the delimitation of treatises, however, this stands by way of the seven treatises: Dhammasaṅgaṇī, Vibhaṅga, Dhātukathā, Puggalapaññatti, Kathāvatthu, Yamaka, and Paṭṭhāna. This is the common account of the teachers herein. But a sophist says - "Why is the Kathāvatthu included? Was it not established by the Elder Moggaliputta Tissa after two hundred and eighteen years had passed since the Perfectly Enlightened One's final nibbāna? Therefore, being spoken by a disciple, it should be rejected." "But then, are the six treatises the Abhidhamma?" "I do not say so." "Then what do you say?" "Seven treatises." "Which one have you taken to make seven?" "There is one called the Mahādhammahadaya; together with that they are seven." "In the Mahādhammahadaya there is nothing new; only a few question-rounds remain. Together with the Kathāvatthu itself they are seven." "Not with the Kathāvatthu; there is one called the Mahādhātukathā; together with that they are seven." "In the Mahādhātukathā there is nothing new; only a small amount of text remains. Together with the Kathāvatthu itself they are seven."

For the Perfectly Enlightened One, when teaching the seven treatises, upon reaching the Kathāvatthu, beginning with the method of argumentation that is eightfold by way of two sets of five among the four questions in the Puggala chapter, established the matrix with only the text of an incomplete recitation-round for all the paths of discussion. And that is: "Is a person found in the highest sense, in the ultimate sense?" Yes. "That which is the highest sense, the ultimate sense - from that is that person found in the highest sense, in the ultimate sense?" "That should not be said so." "Acknowledge the refutation" etc. "Is a person not found in the highest sense, in the ultimate sense?" Yes. "That which is the highest sense, the ultimate sense - from that is that person not found in the highest sense, in the ultimate sense?" "That should not be said so." "Acknowledge the refutation" etc. "Everywhere a person is found, everywhere a person is not found; always a person is found, always a person is not found; in all cases a person is found, in all cases a person is not found, in the highest sense, in the ultimate sense" - thus, showing the first refutation based on the first argument, the second based on the second, etc. the eighth refutation based on the eighth argument, was established by the Teacher. By this method, the establishment of the matrix everywhere should be understood. And when establishing that matrix, he established it having foreseen this: "At the end of two hundred and eighteen years after my final nibbāna, a monk named the Elder Moggaliputta Tissa, seated amidst a thousand monks, will expound the Kathāvatthu treatise, equal in extent to the Dīgha Nikāya, combining one thousand suttas - five hundred suttas in his own doctrine and five hundred in the other's doctrine."

The Elder Moggaliputtatissa too, when teaching this treatise, did not teach it by his own knowledge, but taught it by means of the matrix established according to the method given by the Teacher. Thus, because it was taught by means of the matrix established according to the method given by the Teacher, this entire treatise became indeed the word of the Buddha. Like what? Just as in the case of the Madhupiṇḍika Sutta and others. For in the Madhupiṇḍika Sutta, the Blessed One, having established the matrix thus: "From whatever source the proliferative perceptions and notions beset a person, if therein there is nothing to be delighted in, welcomed, or clung to, this itself is the end of the underlying tendencies of lust," rose from his seat and entered the dwelling.

The monks who were recipients of the Dhamma approached the Elder Mahākaccāna and asked for the meaning of the matrix established by the Tenfold-Powered One. The Elder, without speaking merely upon being asked, in order to show respect to the Tenfold-Powered One, brought forth the simile of the heartwood thus: "Just as, friends, a person desiring heartwood, seeking heartwood," and compared the Blessed One to a heartwood tree and the disciples to the branches and leaves. Having praised the Teacher thus: "For that Blessed One, friends, knows what is to be known, sees what is to be seen; he has become vision, become knowledge, become the Dhamma, become the Holy One; he is the speaker, the proclaimer, the elucidator of meaning, the giver of the deathless, the Lord of the Dhamma, the Tathāgata." Then, being repeatedly requested by the elders, he analysed the meaning according to the matrix established by the Teacher, and with this intention - "If you wish, venerable ones, you should approach the Blessed One himself and ask about this matter; if it accords when compared with the knowledge of omniscience, accept it; if not, do not accept it" - he said: "As the Blessed One explains it to you, so should you retain it," and dismissed them.

They approached the Teacher and asked. The Teacher, without saying "Kaccāna has spoken poorly," as if raising a golden image, lifted his neck and, filling his great mouth resplendent like a fully blossomed hundred-petalled lotus, uttered forth his Brahmā-voice, and giving the Elder his approval saying "Good, good!" said: "Mahākaccāna is wise, monks; Mahākaccāna is of great wisdom, monks. If you, monks, were to ask me about this matter, I too would explain it in exactly the same way as it was explained by Mahākaccāna."

Thus, from the time it was approved by the Teacher, the entire sutta became indeed the word of the Buddha. The same method applies to the suttas elaborated by the Elder Ānanda and others. In just the same way, the Perfectly Enlightened One, when teaching the seven treatises, upon reaching the Kathāvatthu, established the matrix in the manner described. And in establishing it, he foresaw this:

"Two hundred and eighteen years after my final Nibbāna, a monk named the Elder Moggaliputtatissa, seated amidst a thousand monks, will expound the Kathāvatthu treatise, equal in extent to the Dīgha Nikāya, combining together one thousand suttas - five hundred in his own doctrine and five hundred in the opposing doctrine."

The Elder Moggaliputtatissa too, when teaching this treatise, did not teach it by his own knowledge, but taught it by means of the matrix established according to the method given by the Teacher. Thus, because it was taught by means of the matrix established according to the method given by the Teacher, this entire treatise became indeed the word of the Buddha. Thus, the seven treatises together with the Kathāvatthu are called the Abhidhamma.

Therein, in the Dhammasaṅgaṇī treatise there are four analyses: the analysis of consciousness, the analysis of matter, the collection of classifications, and the extraction of meaning. Therein, eight of sense-sphere wholesome, twelve of unwholesome, sixteen of wholesome resultant, seven of unwholesome resultant, eleven of functional; five of fine-material-sphere wholesome, five of resultant, five of functional; four of immaterial-sphere wholesome, four of resultant, four of functional; four of supramundane wholesome, four of resultant - thus eighty-nine types of consciousness are called the analysis of consciousness. It is also named the section on the arising of consciousness. By way of recitation, it exceeds six recitation portions, but when elaborated, it is endless and immeasurable.

Immediately after that, having established the matrix by the method of "in one way, in two ways" and so forth, and having analysed it in detail, what is shown is called the analysis of matter. It is also named the section on matter. By way of recitation, it exceeds two recitation portions. But when elaborated, it is endless and immeasurable.

Immediately after that, what is taught by classifying by way of roots, aggregates, doors, planes, meanings, dhammas, names, and characteristics, and so forth beginning with roots, is called the collection of classifications. He

It is also named "the chapter on setting down." That is approximately three recitation portions by way of the recitation method. But when elaborated, it is endless and immeasurable.

Next after that is what is called the commentary chapter, which is an extraction of the meaning of the three-fold Buddha's word, set down as far as the saraṇa-duka. From which the monks of the Mahāpakaraṇa, not discerning the method of enumeration in the Mahāpakaraṇa, bring together the method of enumeration. That is approximately two recitation portions by way of the recitation method. But when elaborated, it is endless and immeasurable.

Thus the entire Dhammasaṅgaṇī treatise is slightly more than thirteen recitation portions by way of the recitation method. But when elaborated, it is endless and immeasurable. Thus this -

Next after that is the treatise called the Vibhaṅga. That is analysed in eighteen ways as: the analysis of aggregates, the analysis of sense bases, the analysis of elements, the analysis of truths, the analysis of faculties, the analysis of dependent origination, the analysis of the foundations of mindfulness, the analysis of right endeavours, the analysis of bases of spiritual power, the analysis of factors of enlightenment, the analysis of path factors, the analysis of jhāna, the analysis of boundless states, the analysis of training rules, the analysis of analytical knowledges, the analysis of knowledge, the analysis of minor topics, and the analysis of the heart of the Dhamma.

Therein, the analysis of aggregates is analysed in three ways by means of the Suttanta classification, the Abhidhamma classification, and the interrogation. That is approximately five recitation portions by way of the recitation method, but when elaborated it is endless and immeasurable. After that, the analysis of sense bases and the rest are also analysed by these same three methods. Among them, the analysis of sense bases is slightly more than one recitation portion by way of the recitation method; the analysis of elements is approximately two recitation portions. Likewise the analysis of truths. In the analysis of faculties there is no Suttanta classification; by way of the recitation method, however, this is slightly more than one recitation portion. The analysis of dependent origination is approximately six recitation portions, but there is no interrogation herein. The analysis of the foundations of mindfulness is slightly more than one recitation portion; likewise the analyses of right endeavours, bases of spiritual power, factors of enlightenment, and path factors. The analysis of jhāna is approximately two recitation portions; the analysis of boundless states is slightly more than one recitation portion. In the analysis of training rules too there is no Suttanta classification; by way of the recitation method, however, this is slightly more than one recitation portion; likewise the analysis of analytical knowledges. The analysis of knowledge is analysed in ten ways; by way of the recitation method, however, this is approximately three recitation portions. The analysis of minor topics too is analysed in ten ways; by way of the recitation method, however, this is approximately three recitation portions. The analysis of the heart of the Dhamma is analysed in three ways; by way of the recitation method, however, this is slightly more than two recitation portions. All of them, when elaborated, are endless and immeasurable. Thus this Vibhaṅga treatise is approximately thirty-five recitation portions by way of the recitation method; in detail, however, it is endless and immeasurable.

Next after that is the treatise called Dhātukathā. It is analysed in fourteen ways: inclusion and non-inclusion; what is not included by what is included; what is included by what is not included; what is included by what is included; what is not included by what is not included; association and dissociation; what is dissociated by what is associated; what is associated by what is dissociated; what is associated by what is associated; what is dissociated by what is dissociated; what is associated and dissociated by what is included; what is included and not included by what is associated; what is associated and dissociated by what is not included; what is included and not included by what is dissociated - thus analysed in fourteen ways. By way of recitation it amounts to slightly more than six recitation sections, but when elaborated it is endless and immeasurable.

Next after that is the one called Puggalapaññatti. It is analysed in six ways: designation of aggregates, designation of sense bases, designation of elements, designation of truths, designation of faculties, and designation of persons. By way of recitation it is slightly more than five recitation sections; but when elaborated it is indeed endless and immeasurable.

Next after that is the treatise called Kathāvatthu. It is analysed by combining five hundred discourses in one's own doctrine and five hundred in others' doctrines, making a thousand discourses. By way of recitation, not taking what is now written in books but according to the method established at the Council, it is equal in extent to the Dīgha Nikāya, but when elaborated it is endless and immeasurable.

Next after that is the one called Yamaka. It is analysed in ten ways: the Mūla-yamaka, the Khandha-yamaka, the Āyatana-yamaka, the Dhātu-yamaka, the Sacca-yamaka, the Saṅkhāra-yamaka, the Anusaya-yamaka, the Citta-yamaka, the Dhamma-yamaka, and the Indriya-yamaka. By way of recitation it is two thousand recitation sections, but in detail it is endless and immeasurable.

Next after that is the one called the Great Treatise. Paṭṭhāna is also a name for that very same work. It comprises: root condition, object condition, predominance condition, proximity condition, immediate contiguity condition, conascence condition, mutuality condition, support condition, decisive support condition, prenascence condition, postnascence condition, repetition condition, kamma condition, result condition, nutriment condition, faculty condition, jhāna condition, path condition, association condition, dissociation condition, presence condition, absence condition, disappearance condition, and non-disappearance condition. First, by way of conditions, it is analysed in twenty-four ways.

At this point, however, the Paṭṭhāna should be brought together. For the twenty-two triads beginning with the wholesome triad - namely, wholesome states, unwholesome states, indeterminate states - etc. states with conflict and states without conflict - these are the hundred dyads. Furthermore, states partaking of knowledge, states partaking of ignorance, etc. knowledge of destruction, knowledge of non-arising - these are the forty-two Suttanta dyads. Among these, the twenty-two triads and the hundred dyads - this is the matrix of the seven treatises, spoken definitively, being the word of the Conqueror, taught by the Omniscient Buddha.

But then, the other forty-two Suttanta dyads - whence did they originate, by whom were they established, by whom were they taught? They originated from the General of the Dhamma, the Elder Sāriputta; they were established by him and taught by him. However, when establishing these, the Elder did not establish them by his own knowledge independently. Rather, they were established by combining the Ekuttariya, the Ekanipāta, the Dukanipāta, the Saṅgīti, and the Dasuttara Suttas, for the purpose of enabling the Abhidhamma elders to reach the Suttanta without weariness. These, however, were analysed and brought to completion in just one Nikkhepa section. In the remaining sections, the Abhidhamma is analysed up to the Saraṇa dyad.

For by the Perfectly Enlightened One, in the Anuloma Paṭṭhāna, based on the twenty-two triads, what is called the Tika Paṭṭhāna was expounded. Based on the hundred dyads, what is called the Duka Paṭṭhāna was expounded. Thereafter, taking the twenty-two triads and incorporating them into the hundred dyads, what is called the Duka-Tika Paṭṭhāna was shown. Thereafter, taking the hundred dyads and incorporating them into the twenty-two triads, what is called the Tika-Duka Paṭṭhāna was shown. And incorporating triads into triads themselves, what is called the Tika-Tika Paṭṭhāna was shown. And incorporating dyads into dyads themselves, what is called the Duka-Duka Paṭṭhāna was shown. Thus:

In the Paccanīya Paṭṭhāna too, based on the twenty-two triads, it is called the Tika Paṭṭhāna. Based on the hundred dyads, it is called the Duka Paṭṭhāna. Incorporating the twenty-two triads into the hundred dyads, it is called the Duka-Tika Paṭṭhāna. Incorporating the hundred dyads into the twenty-two triads, it is called the Tika-Duka Paṭṭhāna. Incorporating triads into triads themselves, it is called the Tika-Tika Paṭṭhāna. Incorporating dyads into dyads themselves, it is called the Duka-Duka Paṭṭhāna - thus in the Paccanīya too, the Paṭṭhāna was expounded by six methods. Therefore it was said -

Thereafter, in the Anuloma-Paccanīya too, by this same method, six methods were shown. Therefore he said -

Immediately after that, in the Paccanīya-Anuloma too, it was expounded by these same six methods. Therefore he said -

Thus there are six Paṭṭhānas in the forward order, six in the reverse order, six in the forward-reverse order, and six Paṭṭhānas in the reverse-forward order - this Paṭṭhāna, which is the synthesis of the twenty-four universal Paṭṭhānas, is called the Great Treatise.

Now, for the purpose of understanding the profound nature of this Abhidhamma, four oceans should be known - the ocean of saṃsāra, the ocean of water, the ocean of method, and the ocean of knowledge. Therein, the ocean of saṃsāra is as follows -

Thus is spoken of the round of saṃsāra. Since the beginning point of the arising of these beings is not discernible - that at the end of so many hundreds of years, or thousands of years, or hundreds of thousands of years, or hundreds of aeons, or thousands of aeons, or hundreds of thousands of aeons, beings arose, and before that they did not exist; or that they arose in the time of such and such a king, or arose in the time of such and such a Buddha, and before that they did not exist - such a delimitation does not exist; "Monks, the beginning point of ignorance is not discernible; before this, ignorance did not exist and then afterwards it came into being" - by this method, the ocean of saṃsāra is indeed without discoverable beginning.

The great ocean should be understood as the ocean of water. It is eighty-four thousand yojanas deep. Therein, there is no measure of the water in hundreds of āḷhakas, or thousands of āḷhakas, or hundreds of thousands of āḷhakas. Rather, it is reckoned simply as an incalculable, immeasurable great mass of water. This is called the ocean of water.

What is the ocean of method? The word of the Buddha in the three Piṭakas. For when clansmen endowed with faith, abundant in confidence, and supreme in knowledge review even two collections, boundless joy and gladness arise in them. Which two? The Vinaya and the Abhidhamma. For when monks who are bearers of the Vinaya review the Vinaya collection, the laying down of training rules in accordance with the offence - the laying down of training rules as "for this offence, for this transgression, this is the consequence" - is beyond the scope of others, and is the domain of Buddhas alone. When reviewing the repetition series on superhuman states, when reviewing the repetition series on blue kasiṇa, when reviewing the repetition series on scheming, boundless joy and gladness arise. For monks who are specialists in Abhidhamma too, when reviewing the Abhidhamma collection - the distinctions among aggregates, the distinctions among sense bases, the distinctions among elements, the distinctions among faculties, the distinctions among powers, factors of enlightenment, kamma and its results, the delimitation of material and immaterial phenomena, the subtle and refined dhammas - as though grasping the forms of stars in the vault of the sky, our Teacher showed them by analysing material and immaterial dhammas, dividing them section by section, portion by portion - boundless joy and gladness arise.

And for the arising of this, the following account should also be known - The elder named Mahāgatigamiya Tissadatta, it is said, wishing to pay homage to the Great Bodhi Tree, while going to the farther shore, sat on the upper deck of the ship and looked out over the great ocean. Then at that time neither the farther shore was visible to him, nor the nearer shore, but only the great ocean was visible, strewn with spray of water thrown up by the force of the breaking waves, resembling a spread-out silver cloth covered with jasmine flowers. He considered: "Is the force of the waves of the great ocean more powerful, or is the method of approach in the twenty-four-fold universal Paṭṭhāna more powerful?" Then a delimitation of the great ocean became apparent to him - for this is delimited below by the great earth, above by space, on one side by the ring of mountains, and on one side by the shore; but no delimitation of the universal Paṭṭhāna is apparent - and as he reviewed the subtle and refined dhammas, powerful rapture arose in him. Having suppressed the rapture, he developed insight, and just as he was seated, having exhausted all defilements and established himself in the highest fruit of arahantship, he uttered an inspired utterance -

This is called the ocean of method.

What is the ocean of knowledge? Omniscient knowledge is called the ocean of knowledge. "This is called the ocean of saṃsāra, this is called the ocean of water, this is called the ocean of method" - this cannot be known by anything else; it can be known only by omniscient knowledge - thus omniscient knowledge is called the ocean of knowledge. Among these four oceans, the ocean of method is intended in this context. For only omniscient Buddhas penetrate this.

This Blessed One too, seated at the foot of the Bodhi tree, having penetrated this, reviewing the penetrated Dhamma thus: "Indeed, while seeking and searching for this Dhamma of mine, four incalculable aeons plus a hundred thousand aeons have passed, and then, seated on this seat, having destroyed one thousand five hundred defilements, this Dhamma was penetrated" - he sat in a single cross-legged posture for seven days. Then, rising from that seat, thinking "Indeed, on this seat omniscient knowledge was penetrated by me," he stood gazing at the seat with unblinking eyes for seven days. Then this reflection arose among the deities: "Perhaps Siddhattha still has work to be done, for he does not abandon his attachment to the seat."

The Teacher, knowing the reflection of the deities, immediately, for the purpose of calming their reflection, rose up into the air and displayed the Twin Miracle. The miracle performed at the Great Bodhi seat, the miracle performed at the gathering of relatives, and the miracle performed at the gathering at Pāṭiyaputta - all were similar to the Twin Miracle performed at the foot of the Kaṇḍamba tree. Having thus performed the Twin Miracle, descending from the air between the seat and the place where he had stood, he walked back and forth for seven days. And during these twenty-one days, not even on a single day did rays issue forth from the Teacher's body.

But in the fourth week, he sat in the Jewel House in the north-western direction - the Jewel House is not a dwelling made of the seven jewels. Rather, the place where the seven treatises were contemplated should be understood as the Jewel House - there, even while contemplating the Dhammasaṅgaṇi, no rays issued forth from his body. Even while contemplating the Vibhaṅga treatise, the Dhātukathā, the Puggalapaññatti, the Kathāvatthu treatise, and the Yamaka treatise, no rays issued forth from his body. But when, descending into the Great Treatise, he began the contemplation: "condition by way of root, condition by way of object, etc. condition by way of non-disappearance" - then, as he contemplated the twenty-four universal relations, omniscient knowledge found scope exclusively in the Great Treatise alone. Just as the great fish Timirapiṅgala finds scope only in the great ocean eighty-four thousand leagues deep, even so omniscient knowledge found scope exclusively in the Great Treatise alone.

As the Teacher, with omniscient knowledge that had thus found scope, contemplated at ease the subtle and refined Dhamma, six-coloured rays issued forth from his body in the form of blue, yellow, red, white, crimson, and resplendent. Blue rays issued forth from the hair of the head, the facial hair, and the blue parts of the eyes, by virtue of which the vault of the sky appeared as though strewn with collyrium powder, as though covered with flax flowers and blue lotus petals, as though hung with swaying gem-studded palm-leaf fans, and as though spread with dark cloth.

Yellow rays issued forth from the skin and the yellow parts of the eyes; by virtue of which the quarters of the sky shone as though being anointed with streams of liquid gold, as though spread with golden cloth, and as though strewn with saffron powder and kaṇikāra flowers.

Red rays issued forth from the flesh and blood and the red parts of the eyes, by virtue of which the quarters of the sky shone as though dyed with red lead powder, as though being sprinkled with well-prepared lac dye, as though draped with red blankets, and as though strewn with jayasumana, pāribhaddaka, and bandhujīvaka flowers.

White rays issued forth from the bones, the teeth, and the white parts of the eyes; by virtue of which the regions of the directions shone as though besprinkled with streams of milk being poured from silver vessels, as though spread with canopies of silver cloth, as though silver palm-leaf fans were waving about, and as though strewn with flowers such as jasmine, white water-lily, sinduvāra, great jasmine, and Arabian jasmine.

Crimson-hued radiant rays issued forth from each and every part of the body. Thus those rays of six colours, having issued forth, pervaded the dense great earth.

The great earth, two hundred thousand leagues and forty thousand leagues in thickness, became like a mass of refined gold. Then, having penetrated the great earth, they pervaded the water below. The water that supports the earth, four hundred thousand leagues and eighty thousand leagues in thickness, became like molten gold being poured from golden pitchers. Having penetrated the water, they pervaded the wind. The wind, nine hundred thousand leagues and sixty thousand leagues in thickness, became like an upraised mass of gold. Having penetrated the wind, they plunged into the unentangled space below.

Rising upwards as well, they pervaded the realm of the Four Great Kings. Having penetrated that, they pervaded the Tāvatiṃsa heaven, then the Yāma heaven, then the Tusita heaven, then the Nimmānaratī heaven, then the Paranimmitavasavattī heaven, then the nine Brahma realms, then the Vehapphala realm, then having penetrated the five Pure Abodes, they pervaded the four formless realms. And having penetrated the four formless realms, they plunged into the unentangled space.

In the horizontal directions, they plunged into infinite world-systems. In all those places, in the moon there was no moonlight, in the sun there was no sunlight, in the stars there was no starlight, and in the pleasure gardens, mansions, wish-fulfilling trees, bodies, and ornaments of the deities - everywhere there was no radiance. Even the Great Brahmā, capable of pervading with light the entire three-thousandfold great-thousandfold world-system, became like a firefly at sunrise. Only the mere outline of the moon, sun, stars, pleasure gardens, mansions, and wish-fulfilling trees of the deities was discernible. That entire extent was overwhelmed solely by the rays of the Buddha. And this was neither the psychic power of the Buddhas' determination nor the psychic power produced by meditation. Rather, as the Lord of the World contemplated the subtle and refined Dhamma, his blood became clear, the material form of the basis became clear, and the complexion of his skin became clear. The colour-element born of mind stood perfectly still in the surrounding area of eighty hands' breadth. In this manner, he contemplated for seven days.

How great was the Dhamma contemplated during the seven days and nights? It was infinite and immeasurable. This, to begin with, is called the teaching by mind. However, it should not be said that the Teacher, having made a verbal exposition of the Dhamma contemplated by mind for seven days thus, would be unable to teach it to its conclusion even in a hundred years, or a thousand years, or a hundred thousand years. For at a later time too, the Tathāgata, seated at the foot of the Pāricchattaka tree in the Tāvatiṃsa realm upon the Paṇḍukambala stone seat, in the midst of the deities of ten thousand world-systems, making his mother the direct witness, teaching the Dhamma thus - "wholesome dhammas, unwholesome dhammas, indeterminate dhammas" - taught by passing from one dhamma to another by a hundredfold, a thousandfold, a hundred-thousandfold division. The teaching that flowed continuously for three months, flowing with force like a celestial Ganges in the sky, like a stream of water issuing from a water-pot placed face downward, was infinite and immeasurable.

For even at the time of giving thanks after a meal, the teaching of the Buddhas, when they give thanks by extending it a little, is equal in extent to the Dīgha and Majjhima Nikāyas. But when teaching the Dhamma to the assembly that has arrived after the meal, the teaching is equal in extent to the two great Nikāyas, the Saṃyutta and the Aṅguttara. Why? For the Buddhas' resting in the life-continuum is light, the tooth-enclosure is well-formed, the opening of the mouth is smooth, the tongue is soft, the voice is sweet, and the speech turns swiftly. Therefore, even the Dhamma taught in that short time is of such extent. But the Dhamma taught during the three months was indeed infinite and immeasurable.

The Elder Ānanda, being learned and a bearer of the Tipiṭaka, grasps, recites, or teaches fifteen thousand verses and sixty thousand word-groups, standing in one fixed position as if pulling a garland of flowers. Such is one single course of recitation of the Elder. Another person giving the recitation word by word to the Elder is unable to give it, cannot keep up. Only the Perfectly Enlightened One could keep up. Even a disciple of such supreme mindfulness, supreme swiftness, and supreme resolution, learning the teaching taught by the Teacher in this manner over three months, could not reach the end even in a hundred years or a thousand years.

But how did the Tathāgata, teaching continuously for three months in this way, sustain his material body dependent on physical nutriment? By attending to it. For the Buddhas, each particular time is well established, well defined, and clearly evident. Therefore the Blessed One, while teaching the Dhamma, observes the time in the human world. Having noted the time for the alms round, he created a mind-made Buddha, determining "Let his manner of taking the robe, taking the bowl, his deportment, and his bearing be of such a form; let him teach this much Dhamma," and taking bowl and robe, he went to Lake Anotatta. The deities gave him a nāga-creeper tooth-stick. Having chewed it and attended to his body at Lake Anotatta, standing on the manosilā terrace, having dressed in a well-dyed double robe and donned his outer robe, taking the stone bowl given by the Four Great Kings, he went to Uttarakuru. Having brought alms food from there, sitting on the bank of Lake Anotatta, having partaken of it, he went to the sandalwood grove for the day's abiding.

The Elder Sāriputta, the General of the Dhamma, also went there, performed the duties to the Perfectly Enlightened One, and sat down on one side. Then the Teacher gave him the method. He explained: "Sāriputta, this much Dhamma has been taught by me." When the Perfectly Enlightened One thus gave the method, for the chief disciple who had attained the analytical knowledges, the giving of the method was like the ocean shown by standing at its shore and stretching out one's hand. For the Elder too, through a hundred methods, a thousand methods, a hundred thousand methods, the Dhamma taught by the Blessed One was readily accessible.

At what time did the Teacher go to teach the Dhamma after sitting for the day's abiding? There is a time for teaching the Dhamma to the sons of good families residing in Sāvatthī who had arrived; he went at that time. Who knew and who did not know whether he was going or coming after teaching the Dhamma? Deities of great power knew; deities of lesser power did not know. Why did they not know? Because there was no difference in radiance and so forth between the Perfectly Enlightened One and the mind-made Buddha. For between those two there was no difference in radiance, in voice, or in speech.

The Elder Sāriputta also brought each teaching taught by the Teacher and taught it to his own five hundred monks who were his co-residents. Their former connection is this - They, it is said, in the time of the Blessed One Kassapa, were reborn in the womb of small bats, and hanging in a cave, having grasped the sound as a sign from two Abhidhamma-reciting monks chanting the Abhidhamma, without even knowing the dark fortnight and the bright fortnight, merely by grasping the sign of the sound, they passed away and were reborn in the deva world. Having dwelt in the deva world for one interval between Buddhas, at that time they were reborn in the human world, gained faith at the Twin Miracle, and went forth in the presence of the Elder. The Elder brought each teaching taught by the Teacher and taught it to them. The conclusion of the Perfectly Enlightened One's teaching of the Abhidhamma and those monks' learning of the seven books occurred at one and the same time.

In the Abhidhamma, the method of recitation originated from the Elder Sāriputta. The numerical arrangement in the Great Treatise was also established by the Elder himself. For the Elder established the numerical arrangement by this method, thinking: "Without obscuring one dhamma with another, one is able to easily grasp, retain, master, and teach it." This being so, was the Elder the first Abhidhamma scholar? It is not. The Perfectly Enlightened One himself was the first Abhidhamma scholar. For he penetrated it while sitting on the seat at the Great Bodhi tree. And having become the Buddha, while sitting cross-legged for seven days, he uttered this inspired utterance:

This is called the first word of the Buddha. But the reciters of the Dhammapada say:

This is called the first word of the Buddha, they say.

The words spoken at the time of final Nibbāna while lying between the twin Sāla trees - "Now then, monks, I address you: conditioned things are of a nature to decay; strive on with diligence" - this is called the last word of the Buddha.

The true Dhamma revealing the deathless, taught during the forty-five years between these two, as if stringing a garland of flowers, as if threading a string of jewels, is called the middle word of the Buddha.

All of that, when compiled, comprises three Piṭakas by way of collection, five Nikāyas by way of division, nine divisions by way of classification, and eighty-four thousand aggregates of Dhamma by way of aggregates of Dhamma. How? For all of this, by way of collection, is just a threefold division: the Vinaya Piṭaka, the Suttanta Piṭaka, and the Abhidhamma Piṭaka. Therein, the two Pātimokkhas, the two Vibhaṅgas, the twenty-two Khandhakas, and the sixteen Parivāras - this is called the Vinaya Piṭaka. The Dīgha Nikāya is the compilation of thirty-four suttas beginning with the Brahmajāla Sutta. The Majjhima Nikāya is the compilation of one hundred and fifty-two suttas beginning with the Mūlapariyāya Sutta. The Saṃyutta Nikāya is the compilation of seven thousand seven hundred and sixty-two suttas beginning with the Oghataraṇa Sutta. The Aṅguttara Nikāya is the compilation of nine thousand five hundred and fifty-seven suttas beginning with the Cittapariyādāna Sutta. The Khuddaka Nikāya, with its fifteenfold division comprising the Khuddakapāṭha, Dhammapada, Udāna, Itivuttaka, Suttanipāta, Vimānavatthu, Petavatthu, Theragāthā, Therīgāthā, Jātaka, Niddesa, Paṭisambhidā, Apadāna, Buddhavaṃsa, and Cariyāpiṭaka - this is called the Suttanta Piṭaka. The seven treatises beginning with the Dhammasaṅgaṇī are called the Abhidhamma Piṭaka. Therein -

For herein there are varied methods comprising the fivefold recitation of the Pātimokkha, the seven classes of offences beginning with Pārājika, the Mātikā, the Vibhaṅga and other divisions, as well as special methods serving the purpose of strengthening and relaxing through subsequent enactments. And this disciplines bodily and verbal conduct by prohibiting bodily and verbal transgressions. Therefore, because of its varied methods, its special methods, and because it disciplines bodily and verbal conduct, this is declared as 'Vinaya.' Therefore, for the purpose of proficiency in the meaning of the word, this was said -

But as for the other -

For it indicates meanings in their divisions of one's own welfare, others' welfare, and so on. And the meanings therein are well spoken, being spoken in conformity with the dispositions of those to be trained. And it flows forth meanings, just as a seed flows forth fruit; it is said to produce. And it yields, just as a cow yields milk; it is said to exude. And it well protects and guards them, is what is meant. And it is similar to a thread. For just as a thread is the standard for carpenters, so too is this for the wise. And just as flowers strung on a thread are not scattered nor destroyed, so too are the meanings compiled by this. Therefore, for the purpose of proficiency in the meaning of the word, this was said -

The meaning of the word 'abhidhamma' has already been stated. Another method -

For this prefix "abhi" is seen in the senses of growth, characteristic, venerated, defined, and superior. Thus it occurs in the sense of growth in such passages as "excessive unpleasant feelings are advancing for me, not receding." In passages such as "Those nights that are well known, well characterised," it is in the sense of characteristic. In the sense of venerated in such passages as "a king of kings, a lord of men." In the sense of delimitation in such passages as "Capable of training in the higher dhamma and higher discipline" etc.; the meaning stated is: dhamma and vinaya that are free from mutual confusion. In the sense of superior in such passages as "with surpassing beauty."

And herein, dhammas endowed with growth are also spoken of in such manner as "One develops the path for rebirth in the form realm, having pervaded one direction with a mind accompanied by loving-kindness, one dwells" etc. By the method of "having a visual object or having a sound as object," because of being characterisable by object and so on, they also have their own characteristics. They are also revered in such manner as "Dhammas of a trainee, dhammas of one beyond training, supramundane dhammas" etc.; the meaning is: worthy of reverence. By the method of "there is contact, there is feeling," because of being defined by their intrinsic nature, they are also defined. In the manner of "Exalted dhammas, immeasurable dhammas, unsurpassed dhammas," and so forth, dhammas that are superior are also spoken of. Therefore, for the purpose of proficiency in the meaning of the word, this was said -

But what here is not distinguished, that -

For the Scriptures too are called "Canon" in passages beginning with "not by the handing over of the Canon." In such passages as "Then a man would come carrying a basket and hoe" etc., any container whatsoever is also meant. Therefore, those who know the meaning of 'piṭaka' say it is so called in the sense of learning and container.

Now, combining with that, the three beginning with Vinaya should also be understood. Thus, by forming a compound with the word 'piṭaka' having this twofold meaning, it is the vinaya and it is a piṭaka because of being learning, and because of being a container for the respective meanings - thus 'vinayapiṭaka'. In the very same manner as stated, it is a suttanta and it is a piṭaka - thus 'suttantapiṭaka'. It is abhidhamma and it is a piṭaka - thus 'abhidhammapiṭaka'. In this way, these three beginning with vinaya should be understood.

And having understood thus, for the purpose of skill in various aspects regarding those very piṭakas once again -

Herein this is the elucidation and clarification - For these three Piṭakas are respectively called the teaching by command, by convention, and by ultimate meaning; the instructions according to offence, according to disposition, and according to the Dhamma; and the discourses on restraint and non-restraint, on the disentangling of views, and on the definition of name-and-form.

Herein, the Vinaya Piṭaka is called the teaching by command, because it was taught by the Blessed One, who is worthy of command, with an abundance of commands; The Suttanta Piṭaka is called the teaching by convention, because it was taught by the Blessed One, who is skilled in convention, with an abundance of conventions; The Abhidhamma Piṭaka is called the teaching by ultimate meaning, because it was taught by the Blessed One, who is skilled in ultimate meaning, with an abundance of ultimate meanings.

Likewise, the first is the instruction according to offence, because those beings who commit many offences are herein instructed according to their offences; The second is the instruction according to disposition, because beings of various intentions, latent tendencies, conduct, and inclinations are herein instructed according to their dispositions; The third is called the instruction according to the Dhamma, because beings who perceive 'I' and 'mine' in what is merely a mass of dhammas are herein instructed according to the Dhamma.

Likewise, the first is the discourse on restraint and non-restraint, because restraint and non-restraint, which are opposed to misconduct, are spoken of herein; Restraint and non-restraint means both minor and major restraint and non-restraint, like action and non-action, and like fruit and non-fruit; The second is the discourse on the disentangling of views, because the disentangling of views, which is opposed to the sixty-two views, is spoken of herein; The third is called the discourse on the definition of name-and-form, because the definition of name-and-form, which is opposed to lust and the like, is spoken of herein.

In each of these three, the three trainings, the three abandonings, and the fourfold profound nature should be understood. For thus, in the Canon of monastic discipline the training in higher morality is stated in particular; in the Canon of discourses, the training in higher consciousness; in the Canon of the higher teaching, the training in higher wisdom.

And in the Vinaya Piṭaka there is the abandoning of transgression, because virtue is opposed to the transgression of defilements; In the Suttanta Piṭaka there is the abandoning of obsession, because concentration is opposed to obsession; In the Abhidhamma Piṭaka there is the abandoning of latent tendencies, because wisdom is opposed to latent tendencies.

And in the first there is the abandoning of defilements by substitution of opposites; in the others, the abandoning by suppression and by eradication. And in the first there is the abandoning of the defilement of misconduct; in the others, the abandoning of the defilements of craving and views.

And in each one herein, the fourfold profound nature of Dhamma, meaning, teaching, and penetration should be understood - Therein, Dhamma means the text. 'Meaning' means the meaning of that very text. "Exposition" means the exposition of that text as defined by the mind. "Penetration" means the understanding as it really is of the text and the meaning of the text. In all three of these there are these teachings, meanings, expositions, and penetrations. Because, like the great ocean with its sharks, they are difficult to fathom for those of dull wisdom and offer no obtainable footing, therefore they are profound. Thus, in each one here, the fourfold profundity should be known.

Another method - "dhamma" means cause. For this was said: "Knowledge regarding the cause is analytical knowledge of phenomena." "Attha" means the fruit of the cause. For this was said: "Knowledge regarding the fruit of the cause is analytical knowledge of meaning." "Desanā" means designation; the intention is expression of principles in accordance with the teaching; or it is the exposition by way of forward order, reverse order, summary, elaboration, and so forth. "Paṭivedha" means penetrative comprehension. And that is both mundane and supramundane. Both in terms of domain and in terms of non-confusion; understanding of principles in accordance with their meaning, of meanings in accordance with their principles, and of designations in accordance with the mode of designation. Or the undistorted intrinsic nature, reckoned as the individual characteristic, of those various teachings stated here and there, which is to be penetrated.

Now, since in these Piṭakas, whatever class of principles or class of meanings there may be, and whatever teaching that illuminates that meaning in such a way that the meaning to be communicated becomes accessible to the knowledge of the listeners, and whatever penetrative comprehension here reckoned as unconfused understanding, or the unconfused intrinsic nature reckoned as the own-characteristic of those various principles which is to be penetrated - all of this is, for those of weak wisdom who have not accumulated the requisites of wholesome merit, like the great ocean for those without a boat - difficult to fathom and impossible to find a footing in; therefore it is profound. In this way too, in each one here, the fourfold profundity should be known. And to this extent -

This verse has its meaning fully explained.

Here, however, in the three Canons, a threefold distinction of scriptural learning should be seen. For there are three kinds of scriptural learning: the water-snake simile, the for-the-purpose-of-deliverance, and the storekeeper learning.

Therein, that which is wrongly grasped and learnt for the purpose of criticism and the like - this is the water-snake simile. With reference to which it was said - "Suppose, bhikkhus, a man desiring a water-snake, seeking a water-snake, wandering in search of a water-snake, were to see a large water-snake, and were to grasp it by the coils or by the tail. That water-snake, turning back, would bite him on the hand, or on the arm, or on one or another of his limbs. He would, on that account, meet with death or deadly suffering. What is the reason for this? Because of the misapprehension of the snake, monks. Just so, bhikkhus, here some foolish persons learn the Dhamma - the suttas, etc. the expositions. Having learnt that Dhamma, they do not examine the meaning of those teachings with wisdom. Those teachings, not being examined with wisdom, do not yield to reflective acceptance. They learn the Dhamma for the benefit of criticising others and for the benefit of freeing themselves from disputes. And for whatever purpose they learn the Teaching thoroughly, they do not experience that benefit. Those teachings, misapprehended by them, lead to their harm and suffering for a long time. What is the reason for this? Because of the misapprehension of the teachings, monks."

That which, however, is well-grasped, learned by one aspiring only for the fulfilment of the aggregates of virtue and so forth, not for the purpose of criticism and the like - this is for the purpose of deliverance. With reference to which it was said - "Those teachings, rightly taken by them, lead to their welfare and happiness for a long time. What is the reason for this? Because of the teachings being rightly taken, monks."

That which one whose aggregates are fully understood, whose defilements are abandoned, whose path is developed, whose unshakeable is penetrated, whose cessation is realised, whose taints are destroyed, learns merely for the purpose of maintaining the tradition, for the purpose of preserving the lineage - this is the treasurer's learning.

But a monk practising well in the Vinaya, in dependence on accomplishment in morality, attains the three true knowledges, and because of the statement of their varieties therein. One who is well-practised in the Suttas, relying on the accomplishment of concentration, attains the six direct knowledges, and because of the detailed exposition of those therein. One who is well-practised in the Abhidhamma, relying on the accomplishment of wisdom, attains the four analytical knowledges, and because of the detailed exposition of those therein. Thus one who is well-practised in these, in due order, attains this achievement distinguished as the three knowledges, the six direct knowledges, and the four analytical knowledges.

But one practising badly in the Vinaya, because of the similarity of contact between permitted pleasant-contact bed-coverings and outer garments and so on, perceives as blameless those that are rejected, such as contact with things that are clung to and so on. For this was said: "Thus I understand the Teaching taught by the Blessed One, that those things that are obstructions declared by the Blessed One, for one indulging in them they are not sufficient for obstruction." Thereupon he attains the state of being immoral. One who is ill-practised in the Suttas, not understanding the intention in such passages as "These four persons, monks, are found existing in the world" and so forth, grasps them wrongly. With reference to which it was said - "By his own wrong grasp, he misrepresents us and digs up himself and generates much demerit." Thereupon he attains the state of wrong view. One ill-practised in the Abhidhamma, overrunning the reflection on Dhamma, thinks even about the unthinkable, and thereby reaches mental derangement. For this was said: "There are these four things, monks, that are incomprehensible, that should not be considered, which, if one were to consider them, one would become a partaker of madness and vexation." Thus one who is ill-practised in these, in due order, reaches this failure distinguished as immorality, wrong view, and mental derangement. And to this extent -

This verse too has its meaning already stated. Thus, having understood the Piṭakas in their various aspects, by virtue of these, all of this being recited together constitutes three Piṭakas.

How are there five Nikāyas by way of collection? For all of this is fivefold in distinction: the Dīgha Nikāya, the Majjhima Nikāya, the Saṃyutta Nikāya, the Aṅguttara Nikāya, and the Khuddaka Nikāya. Therein, which is the Long Collection? The thirty-four discourses beginning with the Brahmajāla, comprised in three chapters.

But why is this called the Dīgha Nikāya? Because of the collection and abode of discourses of long measure. For collections and abodes are called nikāyas. "Monks, I do not perceive any other single nikāya so diverse as this, monks - beings gone to the animal realm, the nikāya of aquatic creatures, the nikāya of mud-dwellers." Such and similar passages here are proofs from both the teaching and the world. Thus the meaning of the word in the sense of being a nikāya should be understood for the remaining ones as well.

Which is the Majjhima Nikāya? The discourses of middle measure, classified in fifteen groups, beginning with the Mūlapariyāya Sutta, one hundred and fifty-two discourses.

Which is the Saṃyutta Nikāya? Seven thousand seven hundred and sixty-two suttas, established according to the Devatā Saṃyutta and so forth, beginning with the Oghataraṇa and others.

Which is the Aṅguttara Nikāya? Arranged according to the principle of increasing by one factor, beginning with the Cittapariyādāna and others, there are nine thousand, five hundred and fifty-seven discourses.

Which is the Khuddaka Nikāya? The entire Vinaya Piṭaka, the Abhidhamma Piṭaka, the Khuddakapāṭha, the Dhammapada and the rest, the fifteen divisions shown previously; Setting aside the four nikāyas, the remainder is the word of the Buddha.

Thus, by way of nikāyas, there are five nikāyas.

How are there nine divisions by way of factors? For all of this is ninefold: sutta, geyya, veyyākaraṇa, gāthā, udāna, itivuttaka, jātaka, abbhutadhamma, and vedalla. Therein, the Ubhatovibhaṅga, the Niddesa, the Khandhakas, and the Parivāra, the Maṅgala Sutta, the Ratana Sutta, the Nālaka Sutta, and the Tuvaṭṭaka Sutta in the Suttanipāta, and whatever other word of the Tathāgata bearing the name sutta - this should be understood as sutta. All discourses containing verses should be understood as "mixed prose and verse." In particular, the entire Sagāthāvagga in the Saṃyutta Nikāya. The entire Abhidhamma Piṭaka, sutta without verses, and whatever other word of the Buddha not included in the eight factors - that should be understood as veyyākaraṇa. The Dhammapada, the Theragāthā, the Therīgāthā, and the verses in the Suttanipāta not bearing the name sutta, being purely verses - these should be understood as gāthā. Eighty-two suttas connected with verses arising from gladness and knowledge should be understood as udāna. One hundred and ten suttas proceeding in the manner beginning with "This was said by the Blessed One" should be understood as itivuttaka. The five hundred and fifty birth stories beginning with the Apaṇṇaka Jātaka should be understood as jātaka. All suttas connected with wonderful and marvellous qualities, proceeding in the manner beginning with "Monks, there are these four wonderful and marvellous qualities in Ānanda" should be understood as abbhutadhamma.

The Cūḷavedalla, Mahāvedalla, Sammādiṭṭhi, Sakkapañha, Saṅkhārabhājanīya, Mahāpuṇṇama Suttas and others - all those discourses that were asked having gained satisfaction and delight - should be understood as vedalla. Thus, by way of factors, there are nine factors.

How are there eighty-four thousand aggregates of Dhamma by way of aggregates of Dhamma? For all of this is the word of the Buddha.

Thus, by way of the portions of the Teaching as elucidated, there are eighty-four thousand divisions. Therein, a discourse with a single theme is one portion of the Teaching. That which has multiple themes - therein the reckoning of aggregates of Dhamma is by way of themes. In verse compositions, the asking of a question is one portion of the Teaching, the answer is one. In the Abhidhamma, each analysis of triads and dyads and each analysis by way of consciousness is one aggregate of Dhamma. In the Vinaya, there is the case, there is the matrix, there is the word-analysis, there is the offence, there is the non-offence, there is the intermediate offence, and there is the triad division. Therein, each section should be understood as each one portion of the Teaching. Thus, by way of aggregates of Dhamma, there are eighty-four thousand aggregates of Dhamma.

Thus, all of this word of the Buddha, at the time of the Council of Five Hundred, by the group of masters headed by Mahākassapa who were reciting it, having determined the classification thus: "This is Dhamma, this is Vinaya; this is the first word of the Buddha, this is the middle word of the Buddha, this is the last word of the Buddha; this is the Vinaya Piṭaka, this is the Suttanta Piṭaka, this is the Abhidhamma Piṭaka; this is the Dīgha Nikāya" etc. "This is the Khuddaka Nikāya; these are the nine factors beginning with suttas; these are the eighty-four thousand aggregates of Dhamma" - having determined this classification, it was recited. And not only this, but also other manifold classifications of collections visible in the three Piṭakas - the uddāna collection, the vagga collection, the peyyāla collection, the nipāta collection of ekanipāta, dukanipāta and so forth, the saṃyutta collection, the paṇṇāsa collection and others - having determined these classifications of collections, it was recited in seven months.

And at the conclusion of the recitation, this great earth, as if giving applause with arisen joy that "This dispensation of the Possessor of the Ten Powers has been made by the Elder Mahākassapa capable of continuing for a period of five thousand years," trembled, shook, quaked, and shuddered in many ways, making the water its boundary. And many wondrous things appeared.

Now, in what was thus recited, this Abhidhamma, by way of Piṭaka, belongs to the Abhidhamma Piṭaka; by way of Nikāya, to the Khuddaka Nikāya; by way of factor, to exposition; and by way of aggregates of Dhamma, it comprises several thousand aggregates of Dhamma.

Among the monks who preserved it, formerly one monk, having sat down before the entire assembly, bringing a discourse from the Abhidhamma, giving a Dhamma talk, spoke thus: "The form aggregate is indeterminate; the four aggregates may be wholesome, may be unwholesome, or may be indeterminate; ten sense bases are indeterminate, two sense bases may be wholesome, may be unwholesome, or may be indeterminate; sixteen elements are indeterminate, two elements may be wholesome, may be unwholesome, or may be indeterminate; the truth of origination is unwholesome, the truth of the path is wholesome, the truth of cessation is indeterminate, the truth of suffering may be wholesome, may be unwholesome, or may be indeterminate; ten faculties are indeterminate, the faculty of displeasure is unwholesome, the faculty of 'I shall know the unknown' is wholesome, four faculties may be wholesome or may be indeterminate, six faculties may be wholesome, may be unwholesome, or may be indeterminate" - thus he gave the Dhamma talk.

At that place, one monk who was sitting said: "Dhamma speaker, you bring a lengthy discourse as if circumscribing Sineru; what discourse is this?" "It is called the Abhidhamma discourse, friend." "Why do you bring the Abhidhamma discourse? Is it not proper to bring another discourse spoken by the Buddha?" "By whom was the Abhidhamma spoken?" "It was not spoken by the Buddha." "But, friend, have you learned the Vinaya Piṭaka?" "I have not learned it, friend." "It seems that you, not having mastered the Vinaya, speak thus not knowing." "Only the mere Vinaya has been learned, friend." "Even that was poorly learned by you; it must have been learned while sitting at the edge of the assembly and dozing off; for in ordaining or giving full ordination to one such as you, there is a transgression." "For what reason?" Because even the mere Vinaya was poorly learned; for this has been said - "Therein, there is no offence if, not wishing to disparage, he says: 'Come now, friend, first learn the discourses, or the verses, or the Abhidhamma; afterwards you can learn the Vinaya too.' 'Having obtained permission in the discourses, he asks about the Abhidhamma or the Vinaya; having obtained permission in the Abhidhamma, he asks about the discourses or the Vinaya; having obtained permission in the Vinaya, he asks about the discourses or the Abhidhamma.'" "Yet you do not know even this much" - by even this much the opponent is defeated.

The Mahāgosiṅga Sutta, however, is even more powerful than this. Therein, the Marshal of the Dhamma, the Elder Sāriputta, having gone to the Teacher's presence to report the questions asked of one another and the answers given, when reporting the Elder Mahāmoggallāna's answer, said: "Here, friend Sāriputta, two monks discuss the Abhidhamma, they ask each other questions, being asked each other's questions they answer, and they do not falter, and their talk on the Dhamma proceeds well - it is with such a monk, friend Sāriputta, that the Gosiṅga sāla-tree forest would be adorned." The Teacher, without saying "Those who study the Abhidhamma are outsiders in my dispensation," raising his neck resembling a golden casket, filling his great face having the splendour of the full moon, and uttering forth the Brahmā-voice, gave his approval to the Elder Mahāmoggallāna saying "Good, good, Sāriputta!" and said: "As indeed Moggallāna, answering rightly, would answer; for Moggallāna, Sāriputta, is a Dhamma-speaker." Only monks who study the Abhidhamma are indeed called Dhamma-speakers; the rest, even though they speak on the Dhamma, are not Dhamma-speakers. Why? For they, when speaking on the Dhamma, speak by mixing up different kamma, different results, the distinction between materiality and immateriality, and different dhammas. But those who study the Abhidhamma do not mix up different dhammas. Therefore, whether or not a monk who studies the Abhidhamma speaks the Dhamma, when the time for questioning comes, he will expound the question. He alone is called an exclusive Dhamma-speaker. With reference to this, the Teacher, having given his approval, said "Well spoken by Moggallāna."

One who rejects the Abhidhamma strikes a blow at this Wheel of the Conqueror, rejects the knowledge of omniscience, turns back the Teacher's knowledge of the grounds of self-confidence, deceives the assembly that wishes to listen, binds an obstruction upon the noble paths, is seen to fall into one of the eighteen grounds for schism, and is worthy of the act of banishment and the act of censure. Having performed the appropriate act, he should be dismissed thus: "Go, you shall live as one who eats leftovers."

And if he should speak thus: "If the Abhidhamma is spoken by the Buddha, then just as in many thousands of suttas the setting is arranged in the manner beginning with 'On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Rājagaha,' so too its setting should have been arranged." He should be refuted thus: "Such a setting does not exist for the Jātaka, the Suttanipāta, the Dhammapada and so forth, yet these are not non-spoken by the Buddha," and furthermore he should be told thus: "Learned one, this Abhidhamma is indeed the domain of omniscient Buddhas alone, not the domain of others. For the conception of Buddhas is well known, their birth is well known, their full enlightenment is well known, the setting in motion of the Wheel of the Dhamma is well known. The Twin Miracle is well known, the ascent to the celestial realm is well known, the fact of having taught in the celestial world is well known, the descent from the celestial realm is well known. Just as it is impossible and unreasonable to steal the elephant-treasure or the horse-treasure of a wheel-turning monarch, yoke it to a small cart, and go about; or to steal the wheel-treasure, hang it on a straw-cart, and go about; or to put the gem-treasure, capable of illuminating an area of one yojana, into a cotton basket and use it - Why? Because they are goods worthy of a king. Just so, the Abhidhamma is not the domain of others, but the domain of omniscient Buddhas alone. The teaching to be taught is according to their authority. For the conception of Buddhas is well known, etc. The descent from the celestial realm is well known. The Abhidhamma has no need for a setting, learned ones." For when spoken thus, it is not possible for one of another view to cite a legitimate counter-example.

But the Elder Tissabhūti, dweller at the Maṇḍala Monastery, in order to show that this Abhidhamma has the Great Bodhi Tree as its setting, brought forth and expounded the Padesavihāra Suttanta thus: "Monks, I dwelt in a portion of that dwelling in which I dwelt when first fully enlightened." For the portion is tenfold: the portion of aggregates, the portion of sense bases, the portion of elements, the portion of truths, the portion of faculties, the portion of the mode of conditions, the portion of the foundations of mindfulness, the portion of jhāna, the portion of mentality, and the portion of dhammas. Among these, the Teacher at the seat of the Great Enlightenment penetrated the five aggregates without remainder; during these three months he dwelt by way of the feeling aggregate alone. He penetrated the twelve sense bases and the eighteen elements without remainder. During these three months he dwelt by way of feeling in the mind-object sense base and by way of feeling in the mind-object element. He penetrated the four truths without remainder; during these three months he dwelt by way of feeling in the truth of suffering alone. He penetrated the twenty-two faculties without remainder; during these three months he dwelt by way of the five faculties of feeling. He penetrated the cycle of the mode of conditions with its twelve terms without remainder; during these three months he dwelt by way of "with contact as condition, feeling" alone. He penetrated the four foundations of mindfulness without remainder; during these three months he dwelt by way of the foundation of mindfulness of feeling alone. He penetrated the four jhānas without remainder; during these three months he dwelt by way of feeling among the jhāna factors alone. He penetrated mentality without remainder; during these three months he dwelt therein by way of feeling alone. He penetrated dhammas without remainder; during these three months he dwelt by way of the triad of feeling alone. Thus the Elder expounded the setting of the Abhidhamma by means of the Padesavihāra Suttanta.

The Elder Sumana, a village-dwelling deity, while expounding the Dhamma in the lower bronze palace, said: "This adherent of other doctrines is like one crying out in the wilderness with arms raised, like one making a case without witnesses, and does not even know of the existence of the introduction in the Abhidhamma." Speaking thus, he explained the introduction as follows - At one time the Blessed One was dwelling among the devas of Tāvatiṃsa, at the foot of the Pāricchattaka tree, upon the Paṇḍukambala stone. There the Blessed One taught the Abhidhamma discourse to the Tāvatiṃsa devas - "Wholesome states, unwholesome states, indeterminate states."

In other suttas there is only one introduction. In the Abhidhamma there are two introductions - the introduction of attainment and the introduction of teaching. Therein, the introduction of attainment should be understood as extending from the Tenfold-Powered Dīpaṅkara up to the seat at the great Bodhi tree. The introduction of teaching extends up to the Turning of the Wheel of the Dhamma. For the purpose of skill in the introduction of this Abhidhamma, which is thus endowed with both introductions, this set of questions should first be understood - By whom was this Abhidhamma initiated? Where was it brought to maturity? Where was it attained? When was it attained? By whom was it attained? Where was it investigated? When was it investigated? By whom was it investigated? Where was it taught? For whose benefit was it taught? For what purpose was it taught? By whom was it received? Who train? Who have completed the training? Who bear it in mind? Whose word is it? By whom was it conveyed?

Herein this is the answer - By whom was it initiated? It was initiated by the faith of the aspiration for enlightenment. Where was it brought to maturity? In the five and a half hundred birth stories. Where was it attained? At the foot of the Bodhi tree. When was it attained? On the full-moon day of Vesākha. By whom was it attained? By the Omniscient Buddha. Where was it investigated? At the seat of enlightenment. When was it investigated? During the week in the Jewel House. By whom was it investigated? By the Omniscient Buddha. Where was it taught? Among the Tāvatiṃsa devas. For whose benefit was it taught? For the benefit of the deities. For what purpose was it taught? For the purpose of crossing over the four floods. By whom was it received? By the devas. Who are training in it? Trainees and virtuous ordinary persons. Who have completed the training? Arahants, those with taints destroyed. Who maintain it? Those for whom it is current, they maintain it. Whose word is it? It is the word of the Blessed One, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One. By whom was it brought? Through the succession of teachers.

For this Elder Sāriputta, Bhaddaji, Sobhita, Piyajālī, Piyapāla, Piyadassī, Kosiyaputta, Siggava, Sandeha, Moggaliputta, Sudatta, Dhammiya, Dāsaka, Soṇaka, Revata - by these and others it was brought down up to the time of the Third Council. From that time onwards, by the pupils and pupils' pupils of those very ones - thus far it was brought down in the land of Jambudīpa through the lineage of teachers. To this island, however -

Having come here from Jambudīpa.

By these great ones it was brought down. From that time onwards, by the lineage of teachers reckoned as the pupils and pupils' pupils of those very ones, it was brought down up to the present day.

The Sumedha Treatise

Now, for the manifestation of that which has been stated as the occasion of attainment from the time of the Perfectly Enlightened Dīpaṅkara up to the seat of the great Bodhi tree, and the occasion of teaching up to the Turning of the Wheel of the Dhamma, of this which was thus brought down, this gradual discourse should be understood -

It is said that at the beginning of four incalculable aeons plus one hundred thousand aeons ago from now, there was a city named Amaravatī. There dwelt a brahmin named Sumedha, well-born on both sides, from mother and from father, of pure lineage, unchallenged and unreproached with regard to birth for seven generations back, handsome, pleasant to look at, inspiring confidence, endowed with the highest beauty of complexion. He, without doing any other work, learnt only the brahminical arts. While he was still young, his mother and father died. Then his steward, the minister who increased his wealth, brought the income register, opened the chambers filled with gold, silver, gems, pearls and the like, and said: "This much, young master, belongs to your mother, this much belongs to your father, this much belongs to your grandfathers and great-grandfathers," and having indicated the wealth going back seven generations, said: "Take charge of this." The wise Sumedha thought - "My father, grandfather and others, having accumulated this wealth, did not take even a single kahāpaṇa when going to the other world; but it is fitting for me to make a reason for taking it with me." He informed the king, had a drum beaten throughout the city, gave a great gift to the people, and went forth into the ascetic's renunciation. At this point, the story of Sumedha should be told. For this was said in the Buddhavaṃsa -

Therein, "A hermitage was well made for me, a leaf-hut was well constructed" - by this passage it is stated as if the hermitage, leaf-hut, and walking path were built by the wise Sumedha with his own hands. But here the meaning is - Having seen the Great Being who had set out, thinking "Having entered the Himālaya, today I shall enter the Dhammika mountain," Sakka, the lord of the devas, addressed the divine son Vissakamma: "Go, dear one, this wise Sumedha has set out thinking 'I shall go forth.' Build a dwelling place for him." He, having accepted his word, built a delightful hermitage, a well-protected leaf-hut, and a pleasing walking path. But the Blessed One, referring to that hermitage site which had come about through the power of his own merit at that time, said: "Sāriputta, on that Dhammika mountain -

He said. Therein, "my hermitage was well made" means well made by me. "The leaf-hut was well constructed" means the leaf-covered hall too was well constructed by me.

"Free from the five faults" means these are the five faults of a walking path, namely: hardness and unevenness, having trees within, being covered by thickets, being too narrow, and being too wide. For on a walking path with a hard and uneven ground surface, the feet of one walking up and down are hurt, blisters arise, the mind does not attain unified focus, and the meditation subject fails. But on a soft and level surface, owing to comfortable abiding, the meditation subject succeeds. Therefore, the state of having hard and uneven ground should be known as one fault. When there is a tree within, in the middle, or at the end of the walking path, through heedlessness the forehead or head of one walking is struck - thus having trees within is the second fault. On a walking path covered by thickets of grass, creepers, and so on, one walking up and down at the time of darkness, having stepped on living beings such as snakes and so on, either kills them, or being bitten by them incurs suffering - thus being covered by thickets is the third fault. On a walking path that is too narrow, being one cubit or half a cubit in breadth, when one walking up and down stumbles at the edge, even nails and toes are broken - thus being too narrow is the fourth fault. On a walking path that is too wide, the mind of one walking up and down runs about and does not attain unified focus - thus being too wide is the fifth fault. However, a walking path that is one and a half ratanas in width, with a side-path of one ratana on both sides, sixty cubits in length, with soft ground and evenly spread sand is suitable - like the walking path of the great elder Mahinda, the illuminator of the island, at Cetiyagiri; such was that one. Therefore he said "There I built a walking path, free from the five faults."

"Endowed with eight virtues" means endowed with eight pleasures of an ascetic. These are the eight comforts of the ascetic life: the absence of possessing wealth and grain, the state of seeking blameless almsfood, the state of eating food that has cooled, the absence of the defilement of oppressing the country when royal families oppress the country and seize wealth, valuables, or head-taxes and the like, the state of being free from desire and lust for requisites, the state of being fearless from robbery by thieves, the state of being unassociated with kings, rulers and great ministers, and the state of being unobstructed in the four directions. What is meant is this: "He built that hermitage endowed with eight qualities in such a way that while dwelling in that hermitage one is able to experience these eight comforts of the ascetic life."

"Bringing the power of direct knowledge" means afterwards, while dwelling in that hermitage, having done the kasiṇa preliminary work, having undertaken insight meditation on impermanence and suffering for the purpose of generating direct knowledges and attainments, I brought the power of insight that had reached strength. Just as dwelling there I am able to bring that power, so the meaning is he built that hermitage, having made it befitting the power of insight for the purpose of direct knowledge.

"I abandoned the cloth there, having come upon nine faults" - here is the gradual account: at that time, it is said, having built a delightful hermitage adorned with a hut, walking path and so forth, covered with trees bearing flowers and trees bearing fruit, with a sweet water reservoir, free from the terror of wild beasts and birds, suitable for seclusion, having arranged a railing board at both ends of the decorated walking path, having built a smooth slab of mung-bean colour in the middle of the walking path for the purpose of sitting, having placed inside the leaf-hut the ascetic requisites such as the matted-hair circle, bark garment, triple staff, water pot and the like, in the pavilion the drinking-water pot, drinking-water conch and drinking-water saucers, in the fire hall the embers, bowl, firewood and so forth - thus having prepared everything that is of benefit to those gone forth, having carved on the wall of the leaf-hut the letters "whoever wishes to go forth, let them take these requisites and go forth," when the divine being Vissakamma had departed to the heavenly realm, the wise Sumedha, looking along the mountain caves at the foot of the Himalayas for a comfortable place suitable for his dwelling, saw at a river bend the delightful hermitage created by Vissakamma and given by Sakka, went to the end of the walking path, and not seeing any footprints, thought: "Surely those gone forth, having sought alms in a distant village, will have come back weary, entered the leaf-hut and sat down." Having waited a short while, thinking "They are taking too long, I shall find out," he opened the door of the leaf-hut, entered inside, looked here and there, read the letters on the great wall, and thinking "These requisites are proper for me; taking these I shall go forth," he abandoned the pair of cloths he was wearing and had wrapped around him. Therefore he said "I abandoned the cloth there." Thus having entered, Sāriputta, I abandoned the cloth in that leaf-hut.

"Possessed of nine faults" explains that in abandoning the cloth, having seen nine faults, he abandoned it. For those who have gone forth in the going forth of a hermit, nine faults are present in the cloth. Among these, its costliness is one fault; the state of arising through dependence on others is one; the state of quickly becoming soiled through use is one - for when soiled it must be washed and dyed; the state of quickly wearing out through use is one - for when worn out it must be sewn or patched. The difficulty of obtaining it again through searching is one; its unsuitability for the ascetic life is one; its being common with adversaries is one - for it must be guarded so that adversaries do not take it. Its being a basis for adornment when used is one; the state of being a burden on the shoulder and a cause of great desire when carried about is one.

"I wore bark garment" means at that time, Sāriputta, having seen these nine faults, I abandoned the cloth and wore a bark garment - the meaning is that I took up a bark garment made by pulling apart and tying muñja grass, for the purpose of wearing as lower and upper garments.

"Endowed with twelve qualities" means possessing twelve benefits; for in a bark garment there are twelve benefits - It is inexpensive, proper and allowable - this is the first benefit; it can be made with one's own hands - this is the second; through use it becomes soiled slowly and even when washed there is no delay - this is the third; even when worn out through use there is no need for sewing - this is the fourth; the ease of making it when seeking again - this is the fifth; its suitability for the ascetic life - this is the sixth; its being of no use to adversaries - this is the seventh; its not being a basis for adornment when used - this is the eighth; its lightness in wearing - this is the ninth; the state of having few wishes regarding the robe requisite - this is the tenth; the state of being righteous and blameless as it arises from bark - this is the eleventh; the state of being unconcerned even when the bark garment is lost - this is the twelfth.

"I abandoned the leaf-hut, filled with eight faults" - how did I abandon it? It is said that he, while removing his pair of fine garments, took a red bark-cloth robe that was hanging on the robe-rack, resembling a garland of anoja flowers, and having put it on as a lower garment, over it he wrapped another bark-cloth robe of golden colour, and having placed over one shoulder a rough deer-skin resembling a spread of punnāga flowers, he fastened a coil of matted hair, and inserted a firm pin together with the topknot for the purpose of keeping it steady, and having placed upon the net-like hair-band a water-pot of coral colour, he took up a carrying-pole with hooks at three points, on one end of the pole he hung the water-pot, on the other he attached a hook, a basket, a staff and other items, and placing the carrying-pole on his shoulder, taking a walking-stick in his right hand, he came out of the leaf-hut, and walking back and forth on a great walking-path of sixty cubits, he looked at his own appearance and thought: "My heart's desire has reached its peak. Indeed my going-forth is splendid. This going-forth has been praised and commended by all wise men, including Buddhas and Paccekabuddhas. I have abandoned the household bondage. I have gone forth into renunciation. I have obtained the supreme going-forth. I shall practise the duty of an ascetic. I shall attain the happiness of the highest fruit." Thus filled with enthusiasm, he lowered the carrying-pole and, sitting like a golden image on a stone slab the colour of mung beans in the middle of the walking-path, he spent the daytime, and in the evening he entered the leaf-hut, lay down on a reed-mat spread beside a bamboo-strip bed, let his body adjust to the temperature, and waking at the early dawn, he reflected upon his coming: "Having seen the danger in household life, I abandoned immeasurable wealth and endless fame, entered the forest, and went forth as one seeking renunciation. From now on, it is not fitting to conduct oneself heedlessly. For flies of wrong thoughts devour one who wanders having abandoned seclusion. Now it is fitting for me to cultivate seclusion. For I departed having seen household life as an obstruction. And this leaf-hut is pleasant - the ground is prepared the colour of ripe wood-apple, the white walls are the colour of silver, the leaf-roofing is the colour of a pigeon's foot, the bamboo-strip bed is like a variegated spread, it is a comfortable dwelling-place to live in. My household prosperity does not appear to be greater than this." Thus examining the faults of the leaf-hut, he saw eight faults.

For in the use of a hermitage there are eight dangers - With great effort? The need to seek materials by gathering building supplies together is one disadvantage. When grasses, leaves and clay have fallen, the state of constant maintenance due to having to replace them again and again is the second; a dwelling indeed is claimed by an elder, and when one is made to vacate at an untimely hour, there is no one-pointedness of mind - thus the state of being subject to eviction is the third; the making of the body delicate through the warding off of cold and heat is the fourth; whatever evil can be done by one who has entered a house, thus the concealment of blame is the fifth; the making of it one's own possession thinking "mine" is the sixth; the existence of a house is like a second household life - this is the seventh; the state of being shared by many, due to being common to lice, finger-insects, house-lizards and the like, is the eighth. Having seen these eight disadvantages, the Great Being abandoned the leaf-hut. Therefore he said "I abandoned the leaf-hut, filled with eight faults."

"I approached the foot of a tree, endowed with ten qualities" - having rejected a shelter, he says: "I have approached the foot of a tree endowed with ten qualities."

Here these are the ten virtues - Little effort is one quality, for there is only the mere approaching. Little maintenance is the second, for whether swept or unswept, it is comfortable to use. The state of not being subject to eviction is the third; it does not conceal blame, for one doing evil there feels ashamed - thus the non-concealment of blame is the fourth; it does not stiffen the body as does living in the open air - thus the non-stiffening of the body is the fifth. The absence of making it a possession is the sixth; the rejection of attachment to a house is the seventh; unlike in a house shared by many, there is no need to maintain it or to say "Leave, I shall look after it" - thus the absence of having to remove others is the eighth; the state of having joy while dwelling is the ninth; due to the easy availability of a tree-root dwelling wherever one goes, the state of having no attachment is the tenth. Having seen these ten qualities, he says: "I have approached the foot of a tree."

Having considered these many reasons, the Great Being on the following day entered the village for alms. Then when he arrived at the village, the people gave him almsfood with great endeavour. He, having finished the meal, returned to the hermitage, sat down and thought: "I did not go forth thinking 'I do not obtain food.' Rich food indeed increases the intoxication of pride and the intoxication of manhood. There is no end to the suffering rooted in food. What if I were to abandon food produced from what is sown and planted, and become one who eats only fallen fruit?" He, from then on, having done so, striving and endeavouring, within seven days itself, produced the eight attainments and the five direct knowledges. Therefore it was said -

The Sumedha treatise is finished.

After the Blessed One Dīpaṅkara, having passed beyond one incalculable aeon, a Teacher named Koṇḍañña arose. He too had three assemblies of disciples. At the first assembly there were a hundred thousand koṭis. At the second, a thousand koṭis; at the third, ninety koṭis.

At that time the Bodhisatta, having become a universal monarch named Vijitāvī, gave a great gift to the Community of monks headed by the Buddha numbering a hundred thousand crores. The Teacher, having declared the Bodhisatta "He will be a Buddha," taught the Teaching. He, having heard the Teacher's talk on the Teaching, having handed over the kingdom, went forth. He, having learnt the three Piṭakas and having developed the eight attainments and the five superknowledges, without losing his jhāna, was reborn in the Brahma world. The city of the Buddha Koṇḍañña was named Rammavatī; his father was a warrior-noble named Sunanda; his mother was named Sujātā; Bhadda and Subhadda were the two chief disciples; his attendant was named Anuruddha; Tissā and Upatissā were the two chief female disciples; the Bodhi tree was the Sālakalyāṇī; his body was eighty-eight cubits in height; and his lifespan was a hundred thousand years.

In a later period, after one incalculable aeon had passed, in a single aeon four Buddhas arose: Maṅgala, Sumana, Revata, and Sobhita. At the three assemblies of disciples of the Blessed One Maṅgala, at the first assembly there were one hundred thousand koṭis of monks. At the second, one thousand koṭis. At the third, ninety koṭis. His half-brother, Prince Ānanda by name, together with a retinue numbering ninety koṭis, went to the Teacher's presence for the purpose of hearing the Dhamma. The Teacher delivered to him a graduated discourse. He, together with the assembly, attained arahantship together with the analytical knowledges. The Teacher, surveying the previous conduct of those sons of good family, seeing the supporting condition for the bowl and robe created by psychic power, extended his right hand and said: "Come, monks." All of them, at that very moment, bearing bowls and robes created by psychic power, endowed with deportment like elders of sixty years, paid homage to the Teacher and surrounded him. This was his third assembly of disciples.

However, whereas for other Buddhas the bodily radiance extends only eighty hands' lengths all around, it was not so for him. But that Blessed One's bodily radiance, having constantly pervaded the ten-thousandfold world system, stood. Trees, earth, mountains, oceans, and so forth, down to mortars and the like, appeared as if wrapped in sheets of gold. But his life-span was ninety thousand years. For so long a time the moon, sun and so on were not able to shine with their own radiance; the distinction of night and day was not apparent. Just as by day with the light of the sun, beings constantly went about by the light of the Buddha alone. The world discerned the distinction between night and day by means of flowers blooming in the evening and birds singing in the morning. But is this power not present for other Buddhas? No, it is not that they do not; for they too, if they wished, could pervade with their radiance the ten-thousandfold world system or even more. But for the Blessed One Maṅgala, by the power of his former aspiration, the bodily radiance, like the fathom-wide radiance of others, having constantly pervaded the ten-thousandfold world system, stood.

It is said that he, during the time of practising the conduct of a Bodhisatta, established in an individual existence similar to Vessantara, together with his sons and wife, dwelt on a mountain similar to Mount Vaṅka. Then a demon named Kharadāṭhika, having heard of the great man's disposition for giving, having approached in the appearance of a brahmin, requested the Great Being for the two children. The Great Being, saying "I give the little sons to the brahmin," joyful and delighted, causing the earth bounded by water to tremble, gave both children. The yakkha, standing at the end of the walkway leaning against the railing, devoured the two children like a bunch of lotus stalks, while the Great Being looked on. When the Great Being looked at the yakkha and saw his mouth discharging a stream of blood like a flame of fire, even then not even a hair-tip's worth of sorrow arose in him. Rather, as he thought "Well given indeed is my gift," a great joy and gladness arose in his body. He made the aspiration: "By the result of this deed, in the future, by this very means, may rays of light issue forth from my body." In dependence on that aspiration of his, when he had become a Buddha, rays having emanated from his body pervaded that much space.

There is also another former conduct of his. It is said that during his time as a bodhisatta, having seen the shrine of a certain Buddha, thinking "It is fitting for me to sacrifice my life for this Buddha," he had his entire body wrapped in the manner of wrapping a torch, filled a golden bowl worth a hundred thousand, the size of a ratana, with ghee, had a thousand wicks lit therein, placed it upon his head, set his entire body ablaze, and circumambulating the shrine, he spent the entire night. Thus, even as he strove until the rising of the dawn, not even a pore's worth of heat affected him; it was as if he had entered the interior of a lotus. For the Teaching indeed protects one who protects oneself. Therefore the Blessed One said -

As an outcome of this action too, the bodily radiance of that Blessed One, having pervaded the ten-thousandfold world system, stood.

At that time, our Bodhisatta, having become a brahmin named Suruci, approached thinking "I shall invite the Teacher," and having heard the sweet discourse on the Dhamma, said "Venerable sir, please accept my alms-offering tomorrow." "Brahmin, how many monks do you need?" "But how many monks are in your retinue, venerable sir?" At that time, it was the Teacher's first assembly. Therefore he said "A hundred thousand koṭis." "Venerable sir, please accept my alms-offering together with all of them," he said. The Teacher accepted. The brahmin, having invited for the next day, while going home, thought "I am indeed able to give congee, rice, robes and so forth to so many monks, but how will there be a place for them to sit?" That thought of his generated heat in the Paṇḍukambala stone seat of the king of gods, who was standing at the summit of eighty-four thousand yojanas. Sakka, looking with the divine eye thinking "Who now wishes to displace me from this seat?" saw the great man and thought "This brahmin Suruci, having invited the Saṅgha of monks headed by the Buddha, is thinking about a place for them to sit. It is fitting for me too to go there and take a share of merit." He created the appearance of a carpenter and, with an adze skilfully held in hand, appeared before the great man. "Is there indeed any work to be done for wages for anyone?" he said. The great man, having seen him, said "What work will you do?" "There is no craft unknown to me. Whether someone has a house or a pavilion built, I know how to build it for him." "Then I have work for you." "What is it, sir?" "A hundred thousand koṭis of monks have been invited by me for tomorrow. Will you build a pavilion for them to sit in?" "I would indeed build it, if you are able to give me wages." "I am able, dear." "Very well, I shall do it," and having gone, he looked at a certain spot.

The spot, measuring twelve or thirteen yojanas, was level like a kasiṇa disc. He, having thought "Let a pavilion made of the seven precious things arise in this much space," looked. At that very moment, having broken through the earth, a pavilion arose. On its golden pillars there were silver capitals, on its silver pillars golden capitals, on its gem pillars coral capitals, on its coral pillars gem capitals, and on its pillars made of the seven precious things there were capitals also made of the seven precious things. Then he looked, thinking "Let a network of bells hang in the spaces within the pavilion." With the very looking, the network of bells hung down, from which, when stirred by a gentle breeze, a sweet sound issued forth as if from a five-part musical ensemble. It was as if it were the time of a celestial concert taking place. He thought "Let garlands of scented wreaths and flower garlands hang in the intervals." Immediately the garlands hung down. He thought "Let seats and supports for the hundred thousand koṭis of monks arise, breaking through the earth." Immediately they arose. He thought "Let water vessels arise at each corner." Immediately the water vessels arose. Having constructed this much, he went to the brahmin and said "Come, sir, look at your pavilion and give me my wages." The great man, having gone, looked at the pavilion. Even as he was looking, his entire body was pervaded without interruption by rapture of five kinds. Then, having looked at the pavilion, this occurred to him: "This pavilion was not made by a human being. Surely, on account of my aspiration and my virtue, Sakka's abode became hot. Therefore this pavilion will have been caused to be built by Sakka, the king of gods." He thought "It is not proper for me to give a gift in such a pavilion for just one day; I shall give for seven days."

For external giving, even when abundant, is unable to produce satisfaction in bodhisattas. But when they cut off their adorned heads, or pluck out their anointed eyes, or tear out their heart-flesh and give them away, then there arises in bodhisattas what is called satisfaction based on generosity. For when our bodhisatta in the Sivi Jātaka, having dispensed five hundred thousand kahāpaṇas daily, gave gifts at the four city gates and in the middle of the city, that giving was unable to produce satisfaction. But when Sakka, the king of gods, having come in the appearance of a brahmin, requested his eyes, then, even as he was giving them having plucked them out, joy arose; not even to the extent of a hair-tip did his mind undergo alteration. Thus, in dependence on giving, there is no satisfaction for Bodhisattas. Therefore that great man too, thinking "It is fitting for me to give a gift to monks numbering a hundred thousand koṭis for seven days," had the community of monks headed by the Buddha seated in that pavilion and gave what is called gavapāna for seven days. Gavapāna means food prepared by filling large, large vessels with milk, placing them on stoves, and when the milk is thickly cooked, adding a small amount of rice and mixing it with ripe honey, sugar powder, and ghee. But humans alone were not able to serve the food. Even gods, alternating one between each, served the food. Even a space measuring twelve to thirteen yojanas was not sufficient for the monks to occupy. Those monks, however, sat by their own spiritual power. On the final day, having had the bowls of all the monks washed, he filled them with ghee, fresh butter, oil, honey, and sugar for medicinal purposes, and offered them together with sets of three robes. The sets of three robes and cloth received by the most junior monk in the Saṅgha were worth a hundred thousand. The Teacher, while giving the thanksgiving, reflecting "This person gave such a great gift, who indeed will he become?" having seen "In the future, at the summit of two incalculable periods exceeding a hundred thousand cosmic cycles, he will become a Buddha named Gotama," having addressed the great man, he declared "You, having passed beyond such a period of time, will become a Buddha named Gotama."

The great man, having heard the declaration, thinking "I shall indeed become a Buddha; what use is household life to me? I shall go forth," abandoned such prosperity as though it were a lump of spittle and went forth in the Teacher's presence. Having gone forth and having learnt the word of the Buddha, he developed the higher knowledges and attainments, and at the end of his life was reborn in the Brahma world.

Now, the Blessed One Maṅgala's city was named Uttara. His father was a khattiya named Uttara, his mother was named Uttarā, Sudeva and Dhammasena were the two chief disciples, Pālita was his attendant, Sīvalī and Asokā were the two chief female disciples, the nāga tree was his Bodhi tree, and his body was eighty-eight cubits in height. When he, having remained for ninety thousand years, attained final nibbāna, ten thousand world-systems were plunged into complete darkness all at once. In all the world-systems there was great crying and lamentation among human beings.

Thus, having made the ten-thousandfold world system dark, afterwards, when that Blessed One had attained final Nibbāna, a Teacher named Sumana arose. He too had three assemblies of disciples. At the first assembly there were a hundred thousand crores of monks. At the second, on the Golden Mountain, ninety thousand crores; at the third, eighty thousand crores. At that time the great being was a nāga king named Atula, of great power and great might. Having heard "A Buddha has arisen," he emerged from the nāga realm surrounded by his kinsmen, and having arranged an offering with celestial instruments of music for that Blessed One who was attended by a hundred thousand koṭis of monks, and having given a great gift, and having given pairs of cloth to each one individually, he took refuge. That Teacher too declared concerning him "In the future he will become a Buddha."

That Blessed One's city was named Mekhalā, his father was a king named Sudatta, his mother was named Sirimā, Saraṇa and Bhāvitatta were the two chief disciples, Udena was his attendant, Soṇā and Upasoṇā were the two chief female disciples, the nāga tree itself was his Bodhi tree, his body was ninety cubits in height, and his lifespan was ninety thousand years.

Afterwards a Teacher named Revata arose. He too had three assemblies of disciples. At the first assembly there was no counting, at the second there were a hundred thousand koṭis of monks, and likewise at the third. At that time the bodhisatta, being a brahmin named Atideva, having heard the Teacher's discourse on the Dhamma, having taken refuge, and placing his hands in añjali above his head, praised that Teacher's abandonment of defilements and made an offering with his upper robe. He too declared concerning him "You will become a Buddha."

Now that Blessed One's city was named Sudhaññavatī, his father was a noble named Vipula, his mother was also named Vipulā, Varuṇa and Brahmadeva were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Sambhava, Bhaddā and Subhaddā were the two chief female disciples, a nāga tree was his Bodhi tree, his body was eighty cubits in height, and his lifespan was sixty thousand years.

Afterwards a Teacher named Sobhita arose. He too had three assemblies of disciples: at the first assembly there were a hundred koṭis of monks, at the second ninety koṭis, and at the third eighty koṭis. At that time the Bodhisatta, having been a brahmin named Ajita, having heard the Teacher's teaching of the Teaching, having become established in the refuges, gave a great gift to the community of monks headed by the Buddha. He too declared concerning him "You will become a Buddha."

Now that Blessed One's city was named Sudhamma, his father was a king named Sudhamma, his mother was also named Sudhammā, Asama and Sunetta were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Anoma, Nakulā and Sujātā were the two chief female disciples, a nāga tree was his Bodhi tree, his body was fifty-eight cubits in height, and his lifespan was ninety thousand years.

After him, having passed beyond one incalculable aeon, in a single aeon three Buddhas arose: Anomadassī, Paduma, and Nārada. The Blessed One Anomadassī had three assemblies of disciples: at the first there were eight hundred thousand monks, at the second seven, and at the third six. At that time the Bodhisatta was a certain yakkha general, of great power and great might, lord over many hundreds of thousands of koṭis of yakkhas. He, having heard "A Buddha has arisen," having come, gave a great gift to the Community of monks headed by the Buddha. The Teacher too declared concerning him "In the future you will be a Buddha."

Now the Blessed One Anomadassī's city was named Candavatī, his father was a king named Yasavā, his mother was named Yasodharā, Nisabha and Anoma were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Varuṇa, Sundarī and Sumanā were the two chief female disciples, an arjuna tree was his Bodhi tree, his body was fifty-eight cubits in height, and his lifespan was a hundred thousand years.

Afterwards a Teacher named Paduma arose. He too had three assemblies of disciples: at the first assembly there were a hundred thousand koṭis of monks, at the second three hundred thousand, and at the third two hundred thousand monks dwelling in a great forest thicket in a remote wilderness. At that time, while the Tathāgata was dwelling in that very forest thicket, the Bodhisatta, having become a lion, saw the Teacher absorbed in the attainment of cessation, and with a gladdened mind paid homage, circumambulated him, and filled with rapture and joy, roared the lion's roar three times, and for seven days, without abandoning the rapture with the Buddha as its object, went forth for food sustained by rapture and happiness alone, and having given up his life, stood attending upon him. The Teacher, after the elapse of seven days, having emerged from cessation, having looked at the lion, thought "Having gladdened his mind towards the Community of monks too, he will pay homage to the Community" - "Let the Community of monks come." The monks came at that very moment. The lion gladdened his mind towards the Saṅgha. The Teacher, having observed his mind, declared: "In the future you will become a Buddha."

Now the Blessed One Paduma's city was Campaka, his father was a king named Asama, his mother was named Asamā, Sāla and Upasāla were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Varuṇa, Rāmā and Surāmā were the two chief female disciples, a soṇa tree was his Bodhi tree, his body was fifty-eight cubits in height, and his lifespan was a hundred thousand years.

Afterwards a Teacher named Nārada arose. He too had three assemblies of disciples: at the first assembly there were a hundred thousand koṭis of monks, at the second ninety thousand koṭis, and at the third eighty thousand koṭis. At that time the Bodhisatta, having gone forth as a hermit, having become proficient in the five higher knowledges and the eight attainments, gave a great offering to the community of monks headed by the Buddha and made an offering of red sandalwood. He too declared of him: "In the future you will become a Buddha."

Now that Blessed One's city was named Dhaññavatī, his father was a noble named Sudeva, his mother was named Anomā, Bhaddasāla and Jitamitta were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Vāsiṭṭha, Uttarā and Phaggunī were the two chief female disciples, a great soṇa tree was his Bodhi tree, his body was eighty-eight cubits in height, and his lifespan was ninety thousand years.

Now after the Buddha Nārada, having passed beyond one incalculable aeon, at the summit of a hundred thousand aeons from now, in a single aeon, one Buddha alone arose, named Padumuttara. He too had three assemblies of disciples: at the first assembly there were a hundred thousand koṭis of monks, at the second on Mount Vebhāra ninety thousand koṭis, and at the third eighty thousand koṭis. Then the Bodhisatta, having been a great official named Jaṭila, gave a gift together with robes to the community of monks headed by the Buddha. He too declared concerning him "In the future you will be a Buddha." Now in the time of the Blessed One Padumuttara there were no sectarians; all devas and humans took refuge in the Buddha alone.

His city was named Haṃsavatī, his father was a noble named Ānanda, his mother was named Sujātā, Devala and Sujāta were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Sumana, Amitā and Asamā were the two chief female disciples, a salala tree was his Bodhi tree, his body was eighty-eight cubits in height, the radiance of his body extended twelve yojanas in all directions, and his lifespan was a hundred thousand years.

After him, having passed beyond seventy thousand aeons, at the summit of thirty thousand aeons from now, in a single aeon two Buddhas arose: Sumedha and Sujāta. Sumedha too had three assemblies of disciples: at the first assembly in the city of Sudassana there were a hundred koṭis of arahants with taints destroyed, at the second ninety koṭis, and at the third eighty koṭis. At that time the Bodhisatta, having become a brahmin youth named Uttara, disbursed the eighty koṭis of wealth that had been stored away and set aside, gave a great offering to the community of monks headed by the Buddha, heard the Dhamma, established himself in the refuges, went forth and was ordained. He too declared concerning him "In the future you will be a Buddha."

The Blessed One Sumedha had a city named Sudassana, a king named Sudatta was his father, his mother was also named Sudattā, Saraṇa and Sabbakāma were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Sāgara, Rāmā and Surāmā were the two chief female disciples, the great nīpa tree was his Bodhi tree, his body was eighty-eight cubits in height, and his lifespan was ninety thousand years.

Afterwards a Teacher named Sujāta arose. He too had three assemblies of disciples. At the first assembly there were six million monks, at the second fifty, and at the third forty. Then the Bodhisatta, having been a wheel-turning monarch, having heard "A Buddha has arisen," having approached, having heard the Teaching, having given the sovereignty of the four great continents together with the seven treasures to the community of monks headed by the Buddha, he went forth in the Teacher's presence. The inhabitants of the entire country, having taken up the national revenue, fulfilling the duties of monastery attendants, constantly gave a great gift to the community of monks headed by the Buddha. That Teacher too declared concerning him.

That Blessed One's city was named Sumaṅgala, a king named Uggata was his father, his mother was named Pabhāvatī, Sudassana and Sudeva were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Nārada, Nāgā and Nāgasamālā were the two chief female disciples, the great bamboo tree was his Bodhi tree. It is said that it had sparse openings, a dense trunk, and with its great branches spreading out above, it shone like a peacock's tail-fan. That Blessed One's body was fifty cubits in height, and his lifespan was ninety thousand years.

Afterwards, at the summit of eighteen hundred cosmic cycles from now, in one cosmic cycle, three Buddhas arose - Piyadassī, Atthadassī, and Dhammadassī. Piyadassī too had three assemblies of disciples. At the first there were a hundred thousand koṭis of monks, at the second ninety koṭis, and at the third eighty koṭis. Then the Bodhisatta, having been a young man named Kassapa who had gone beyond the three Vedas, having heard the Teacher's teaching of the Teaching, having had a monastery for the Community built by the relinquishment of a hundred thousand crores of wealth, he became established in the refuges and in the precepts. Then the Teacher declared concerning him "After the passing of eighteen hundred cosmic cycles you will be a Buddha."

That Blessed One's city was named Anoma, his father was a king named Sudinna, his mother was named Candā, Pālita and Sabbadassī were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Sobhita, Sujātā and Dhammadinnā were the two chief female disciples, the piyaṅgu tree was his Bodhi tree, his body was eighty cubits in height, and his lifespan was ninety thousand years.

Afterwards a Blessed One named Atthadassī arose. He too had three assemblies of disciples. At the first there were nine hundred and eighty thousand monks, at the second eighty-eight thousand, and likewise at the third. At that time the Bodhisatta, being a great powerful ascetic named Susīma, brought a canopy of mandārava flowers from the deva world and honoured the Teacher. That Teacher too declared concerning him.

That Blessed One's city was named Sobhaṇa, a king named Sāgara was his father, his mother was named Sudassanā, Santa and Upasanta were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Abhaya, Dhammā and Sudhammā were the two chief female disciples, the campaka tree was his Bodhi tree, his body was eighty cubits in height, the radiance of his body pervaded a distance of one yojana all around at all times, and his lifespan was a hundred thousand years.

Afterwards a Teacher named Dhammadassī arose. He too had three assemblies of disciples. At the first assembly there were a hundred crores of monks, at the second ninety crores, at the third eighty crores. At that time the Bodhisatta, having become Sakka, king of the devas, made an offering with divine perfumes and flowers and divine musical instruments. That Teacher too declared concerning him.

That Blessed One's city was named Saraṇa, his father was a king named Saraṇa, his mother was named Sunandā, Paduma and Phussadeva were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Sunetta, Khemā and Sabbanāmā were the two chief female disciples, the rattaṅkura tree was his Bodhi tree - it is also called "kakudha tree" and "bimbijāla" - and his body was eighty cubits in height, and his lifespan was a hundred thousand years.

Afterwards, at the summit of ninety-four cosmic cycles from now, in one cosmic cycle, a Buddha named Siddhattha alone arose. He too had three assemblies of disciples. At the first assembly there were a hundred thousand koṭis of monks, at the second ninety koṭis, and at the third eighty koṭis. At that time the Bodhisatta, having been a hermit named Maṅgala, of risen radiance, accomplished in the power of direct knowledge, having brought a great rose-apple fruit, gave it to the Tathāgata. The Teacher, having consumed that fruit, declared of the Bodhisatta "At the summit of ninety-four cosmic cycles you will be a Buddha."

That Blessed One's city was named Vebhāra, his father was a king named Jayasena, his mother was named Suphassā, Sambala and Sumitta were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Revata, Sīvalā and Surāmā were the two chief female disciples, the kaṇikāra tree was his Bodhi tree, his body was sixty cubits in height, and his lifespan was one hundred thousand years.

After him, ninety-two aeons ago from the present, two Buddhas arose in a single aeon - Tissa and Phussa. The Blessed One Tissa had three assemblies of disciples. At the first assembly there were a hundred crores of monks, at the second ninety crores, at the third eighty crores. At that time the Bodhisatta, being a warrior noble named Sujāta of great wealth and great fame, went forth into the ascetic life, attained great supernatural power, and having heard that a Buddha had arisen, took divine mandārava, lotus, and pāricchattaka flowers and honoured the Tathāgata as he was going amidst the fourfold assembly, and the flowers remained standing as a canopy in the sky. That Teacher also declared of him: "Ninety-two aeons hence you will become a Buddha."

That Blessed One's city was named Khema, his father was a warrior noble named Janasandha, his mother was named Padumā, Brahmadeva and Udaya were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Samaṅga, Phussā and Sudattā were the two chief female disciples, the asana tree was his Bodhi tree, his body was sixty cubits in height, and his lifespan was one hundred thousand years.

Afterwards a Teacher named Phussa arose. He too had three assemblies of disciples; at the first assembly there were six hundred thousand monks, at the second fifty thousand, and at the third thirty-two thousand. At that time the Bodhisatta, being a warrior noble named Vijitāvī, relinquished a great kingdom, went forth in the presence of the Teacher, learned the three Piṭakas, and taught the Dhamma to a great multitude. And he fulfilled the perfection of virtue. He too declared concerning him "You will become a Buddha."

That Blessed One's city was named Kāsi, his father was a king named Jayasena, his mother was named Sirimā, Surakkhito and Dhammasena were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Sabhiya, Cālā and Upacālā were the two chief female disciples, the āmalaka tree was his Bodhi tree, his body was fifty-eight cubits in height, and his lifespan was ninety thousand years.

Afterwards, ninety-one cosmic cycles from now, a Blessed One named Vipassī arose. He too had three assemblies of disciples; at the first assembly there were six million eight hundred thousand monks, at the second one hundred thousand, and at the third eighty thousand. At that time the Bodhisatta, of great supernormal power and great might, having been a king of serpents named Atula, gave to the Blessed One a great chair made of gold inlaid with the seven precious things. That Teacher also declared of him: "Ninety-one aeons hence you will become a Buddha."

That Blessed One's city was named Bandhumatī, his father was a king named Bandhumā. His mother was named Bandhumatī, Khaṇḍa and Tissa were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Asoka, Candā and Candamittā were the two chief female disciples, the pāṭali tree was his Bodhi tree, his body was eighty cubits in height, the radiance of his body always pervaded seven leagues and remained so, and his lifespan was eighty thousand years.

After him, thirty-one aeons ago from the present, there were two Buddhas - Sikhī and Vessabhū. The Blessed One Sikhī also had three assemblies of disciples; at the first assembly there were one hundred thousand monks, at the second eighty thousand, and at the third seventy thousand. At that time the Bodhisatta, having been a king named Arindama, having carried on a great giving together with robes to the Community of monks headed by the Buddha, having given an elephant treasure adorned with the seven precious things, having made it the measure of an elephant, he gave allowable requisites. He too declared of him: "Thirty-one aeons hence you will become a Buddha."

That Blessed One's city was named Aruṇavatī, his father was a warrior noble named Aruṇavā, his mother was named Pabhāvatī, Abhibhū and Sambhava were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Khemaṅkara, Sakhilā and Padumā were the two chief female disciples, the puṇḍarīka tree was his Bodhi tree, his body was seventy cubits in height, the radiance of his body pervaded three leagues and remained so, and his lifespan was seventy thousand years.

Afterwards a Teacher named Vessabhū arose. He too had three assemblies of disciples; at the first assembly there were eighty thousand monks, at the second seventy thousand, and at the third sixty thousand. At that time the Bodhisatta, being a king named Sudassana, offered a great gift including robes to the Saṅgha of monks headed by the Buddha, went forth in the presence of the Teacher, was endowed with the qualities of good conduct, and was filled with reverence and joy towards the jewel of the Buddha. He too declared of him: "Thirty-one aeons hence you will become a Buddha."

That Blessed One's city was named Anoma, his father was a king named Suppatīta, his mother was named Yasavatī, Soṇa and Uttara were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Upasanta, Dāmā and Samālā were the two chief female disciples, the sāla tree was his Bodhi tree, his body was sixty cubits in height, and his lifespan was sixty thousand years.

Afterwards, in this cosmic cycle, four Buddhas arose - Kakusandha, Koṇāgamana, Kassapa, and our Blessed One. The Blessed One Kakusandha had one assembly of disciples; therein there were forty thousand monks. At that time the Bodhisatta, being a king named Khema, offered a great gift including bowl and robes to the Saṅgha of monks headed by the Buddha, as well as medicines such as collyrium, and having heard the Teacher's discourse on the Dhamma, went forth. That Teacher too declared concerning him.

Now, the Blessed One Kakusandha had a city named Khema, a brahmin named Aggidatta was his father, a brahmin lady named Visākhā was his mother, Vidhura and Sañjīva were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Buddhija, Sāmā and Campā were the two chief female disciples, the great sirīsa tree was his Bodhi tree, his body was forty cubits in height, and his lifespan was forty thousand years.

Afterwards, a Teacher named Koṇāgamana arose. He too had one assembly of disciples, wherein there were thirty thousand monks. At that time the Bodhisatta, being a king named Pabbata, surrounded by a retinue of ministers, went to the Teacher's presence, heard the teaching of the Dhamma, invited the Saṅgha of monks headed by the Buddha, gave a great offering, and having given robes of cotton, Chinese silk, silk, woollen blankets, and fine cloth as well as golden sandals, he went forth in the Teacher's presence. That Teacher too declared concerning him.

That Blessed One had a city named Sobhavatī, a brahmin named Yaññadatta was his father, a brahmin lady named Uttarā was his mother, Bhiyyosa and Uttara were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Sotthija, Samuddā and Uttarā were the two chief female disciples, the udumbara tree was his Bodhi tree, his body was thirty cubits in height, and his lifespan was thirty thousand years.

Afterwards, a Teacher named Kassapa arose. He too had only one assembly of disciples, wherein there were twenty thousand monks. At that time the Bodhisatta was a young man named Jotipāla, who had mastered the three Vedas, was renowned on earth and in the sky, and was a friend of the potter Ghaṭikāra. Together with him, he approached the Teacher, heard the Dhamma talk, went forth, and with aroused energy, having learned the three Piṭakas, he made the Buddha's dispensation resplendent through the accomplishment of his practice. That Teacher too declared concerning him.

That Blessed One's birth city was named Bārāṇasī. A brahmin named Brahmadatta was his father, a brahmin lady named Dhanavatī was his mother, Tissa and Bhāradvāja were the two chief disciples, his attendant was named Sabbamitto, Anuḷā and Uruveḷā were the two chief female disciples, the nigrodha tree was his Bodhi tree, his body was twenty cubits in height, and his lifespan was twenty thousand years.

Now, after that Blessed One, apart from this Perfectly Enlightened One, there is no other Buddha. Thus, the Bodhisatta who had received a declaration in the presence of twenty-four Buddhas beginning with Dīpaṅkara, by means of which -

Having brought together these eight conditions, with the aspiration made at the foot of Dīpaṅkara, making the effort thus: "Come, let me search here and there for the qualities that make a Buddha," and "Searching, I then saw the first, the perfection of giving" - the qualities that make a Buddha, beginning with the perfection of giving, were seen, and fulfilling them, he came as far as the existence as Vessantara. And while coming, the benefits that have been praised for Bodhisattas who have made their resolution -

He came having attained those benefits. And while he was fulfilling the perfections, in the time of the brahmin Akitti, in the time of the brahmin Saṅkha, in the time of King Dhanañcaya, in the time of King Mahāsudassana, in the time of Mahāgovinda, in the time of the great King Nimi, in the time of Prince Canda, in the time of the merchant Visayha, in the time of King Sivi, in the time of King Vessantara - there is no measure of the existences fulfilled through the perfection of giving. But in particular, in the time of the Jātaka of the Wise Hare -

Thus, for one making the relinquishment of self, the perfection of giving became the supreme perfection.

Likewise, in the time of the Nāga King Sīlavā, in the time of the Nāga King Campeyya, in the time of the Nāga King Bhūridatta, in the time of the Nāga King Chaddanta, in the time of Prince Jayaddisa, in the time of Prince Alīnasattu - there is no measure of the existences fulfilled through the perfection of virtue. But in particular, in the time of the Saṅkhapāla Jātaka -

Thus, for one making the relinquishment of self, the perfection of morality became the supreme perfection.

Likewise, in the time of Prince Somanassa, in the time of Prince Hatthipāla, in the time of the wise Ayoghara - having abandoned great kingship, there is no measure of the existences fulfilled through the perfection of renunciation. But in particular, in the time of the Cūḷasutasoma Jātaka -

Thus, for one going forth having abandoned the kingdom through non-attachment, the perfection of renunciation became the supreme perfection.

Likewise, in the time of the wise Vidhura, in the time of the wise Mahāgovinda, in the time of the wise Kudāla, in the time of the wise Araka, in the time of the wanderer Bodhi, in the time of the wise Mahosadha - there is no measure of the existences fulfilled through the perfection of wisdom. But certainly for him, in the Sattubhasta Jātaka, during the time of the wise man Senaka -

For one showing the snake that had gone inside the leather bag, the perfection of wisdom became the supreme perfection.

Likewise, there is no measure of the individual existences fulfilled through the perfection of energy and so on. But certainly for him, in the Mahājanaka Jātaka -

Thus, for one crossing the great ocean, the perfection of energy became the supreme perfection.

In the Khantivādī Jātaka -

Thus, for one enduring great suffering as if in a senseless state, the perfection of patience became the supreme perfection.

In the Mahāsutasoma Jātaka -

Thus, for the one guarding truth while giving up his life, the perfection of truth became the ultimate perfection.

In the Mūgapakkha Jātaka -

Thus, for the one undertaking the vow while giving up his life, the perfection of determination became the ultimate perfection.

In the Ekarāja Jātaka -

Thus, for the one practising loving-kindness without regard for his life, the perfection of loving-kindness became the ultimate perfection.

In the Lomahaṃsa Jātaka -

Thus, for the one who did not go beyond equanimity even when village boys produced pleasure and pain through spitting and the like, as well as through offerings of garlands, perfumes and the like, the perfection of equanimity became the ultimate perfection. This is the summary here; but in detail this meaning should be taken from the Cariyāpiṭaka.

Thus, having fulfilled the perfections, standing in the individual existence as Vessantara -

Having thus performed great meritorious deeds that caused the great earth to quake, at the end of his lifespan, passing away from there, he was reborn in the Tusita realm. There, surpassing the other devas in ten respects, while experiencing divine prosperity for the full lifespan - which by human reckoning would now reach its end in seven days - when the five forerunning signs appeared, namely: garments become soiled, garlands wither, sweat issues from the armpits, discolouration descends upon the body, and the deva does not remain settled on his divine seat - the deities, having seen those signs and being stirred with a sense of urgency thinking "Alas, the heavens will be empty!", knowing that the Great Being had fulfilled the perfections, reflected: "Now, without going to another divine realm, having been born in the human world and attained Buddhahood, beings who have performed meritorious deeds, passing away again and again as humans, will fill the divine realms" - and thus:

Thus, having been requested for the attainment of Buddhahood, having surveyed the five great investigations - namely, the time, the continent, the country, the family, and the mother's lifespan - and having made his determination, he passed away from there, took rebirth in the Sakyan royal family, and there, being nurtured with great fortune, gradually reached the prime of youth. In this interval, the detailed account should be understood by way of the sutta passages beginning with "Mindful and clearly comprehending, Ānanda, the Bodhisatta passed away from the Tusita host and descended into his mother's womb" and their commentary.

He, experiencing the splendour of kingship like the splendour of the celestial realm in three palaces suited to the three seasons, on the occasion of going for sport in the park, having gradually seen the three divine messengers known as the aged, the sick, and the dead, being stirred with a sense of urgency, turned back, and on the fourth occasion, having seen a renunciant, having aroused an inclination for the going forth thinking "Good is the going forth," having gone to the park, having spent the daytime there, seated on the bank of the Maṅgala lotus pond, having been adorned and prepared by the son of the gods Vissakamma who had come in the guise of a barber, having heard the message of the birth of Rāhulabhadda, knowing the strength of affection for a son, thinking "Before this bond grows stronger, I shall cut it off," entering the city in the evening -

Having heard this verse spoken by Kisāgotamī, the daughter of his paternal aunt, thinking "I have been reminded of the state of quenching by her," having released from his neck a pearl necklace worth a hundred thousand, having sent it to her, having entered his own mansion, seated on the royal couch, having seen the unsightly state of the dancers overcome by sleep, with a disenchanted heart, having roused Channa, having had Kaṇḍaka brought, having mounted Kaṇḍaka, with Channa alone as companion, attended by the deities of the ten-thousandfold world system, having gone forth in the Great Renunciation, in the remaining part of that very night, having crossed over three great kingdoms, having gone forth on the bank of the Anomā river, having gradually gone to Rājagaha, having walked for alms there, seated on the slope of Paṇḍava mountain, being invited with a kingdom by the king of Magadha, having refused that, having made a promise to him to come to his realm after attaining omniscience, having approached Āḷāra and Udaka, being unsatisfied with the attainment gained in their presence, having striven in the great exertion for six years, on the full-moon day of Vesākha, early in the morning, having partaken of the milk-rice given by Sujātā in the village of Senāni, having set afloat the golden bowl on the river Nerañjarā, having spent the daytime in various attainments in the great forest grove on the bank of the Nerañjarā, in the evening, having taken the eight handfuls of grass given by Sotthiya, his virtues being praised by the Nāga king Kāḷa, having ascended the seat of enlightenment, having spread the grass, having made the resolve "I shall not break this cross-legged posture until my mind is liberated from the taints without clinging," having sat facing the eastern direction, while the sun had not yet set, having dispelled the forces of Māra, in the first watch attaining the knowledge of recollection of past lives, in the middle watch attaining the knowledge of the passing away and rebirth of beings, at the end of the last watch, penetrating the knowledge of omniscience adorned with all the qualities of a Buddha such as the ten powers and the four kinds of fearlessness - he realised this ocean of the Abhidhamma method. Thus should the account of his realisation be understood.

Having thus realised the Abhidhamma, having passed beyond the week of sitting in one cross-legged posture, the week of unblinking gazing, and the week of walking meditation, in the fourth week having examined the Abhidhamma realised through the attainment of self-arisen knowledge, having spent three more weeks at the Ajapāla tree, the Mucalinda tree, and the Rājāyatana, in the eighth week, seated at the foot of the Ajapāla banyan tree, becoming disinclined through reflection on the profundity of the Dhamma, being requested to teach the Dhamma by Brahmā Sahampati attended by the great Brahmā retinue of the ten-thousandfold world system, having surveyed the world with the Buddha-eye, having accepted Brahmā's invitation, looking about thinking "To whom should I first teach the Dhamma?" knowing that Āḷāra and Udaka had passed away, recollecting the great helpfulness of the group of five monks, having risen from his seat, going to the city of Kāsi, having conversed with Upaka along the way, on the full-moon day of Āsāḷhī, having reached the dwelling place of the group of five monks at the Deer Park in Isipatana, having persuaded them who were conducting themselves with an improper manner, setting in motion the Wheel of the Dhamma, he gave the drink of the deathless to eighteen koṭis of Brahmās headed by the Elder Aññāsikoṇḍañña. Thus should the account of the teaching up to the setting in motion of the Wheel of the Dhamma be understood. This is the summary here. The detailed account, however, should be understood by way of the Ariyapariyesana Sutta, the Pabbajja Sutta, and others together with their commentaries.

Now, for this Abhidhamma, which is thus endowed with the account of realisation and the account of teaching, there are three further accounts: the distant account, the not-so-distant account, and the proximate account. Therein, from the foot of Dīpaṅkara onwards up to the Tusita city should be understood as the distant account. From the Tusita city onwards up to the seat of enlightenment is the not-so-distant account. "At one time the Blessed One was dwelling among the devas of Tāvatiṃsa, at the foot of the Pāricchattaka tree, on the Paṇḍukambala stone seat. There the Blessed One taught the Abhidhamma discourse to the Tāvatiṃsa devas" - this is its proximate account. This, for now, is the account of the origin.

The origin treatise is finished.

1.

The Chapter on the Arising of Consciousness

Explanation of the Terms of the Threefold Matrix

Now,

Thus the occasion has arrived for the teaching of the Abhidhamma discourse as promised. Therein, since the Abhidhamma consists of the seven treatises beginning with the Dhammasaṅgaṇī; And the Dhammasaṅgaṇī consists of four sections by way of the section on the arising of consciousness and so forth; And the section on the arising of consciousness is twofold by way of the matrix and the classification of terms; Therein, the matrix comes first; And that too is twofold: the matrix of triads and the matrix of dyads; Therein, the matrix of triads comes first; And in the matrix of triads, there is the wholesome triad, and in the wholesome triad, this term "wholesome states"; Therefore -

1. "Wholesome mental states, unwholesome mental states, indeterminate mental states" - this, to begin with, is named after its first term and is called the wholesome triad. "Mental states associated with pleasant feeling, mental states associated with painful feeling, mental states associated with neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling" - this is named after all its terms and is called the feeling triad. Thus the name of all triads and dyads should be understood either by way of the first term or by way of all terms. All of these are determined by fifteen divisions. For the triads have one division, and the dyads have fourteen. For the six dyads beginning with "mental states that are root-conditions, mental states that are not root-conditions," because they stand interconnected with one another both in text and in meaning, like a whorl or like a cluster, are called the "root-condition cluster." After that, the seven dyads beginning with "mental states that are conditionally arisen, mental states that are not conditionally arisen," being unconnected with one another, merely selected and sorted out from the commonality of being dyads and placed separately between clusters, and being smaller than the other great intermediate dyads, should be understood as "minor intermediate dyads." After that, by virtue of the six dyads beginning with the canker dyad, there is the "canker cluster"; likewise, by virtue of the dyads beginning with the fetter dyad, there is the "fetter cluster"; likewise, by virtue of the dyads beginning with the tie, flood, yoke, and hindrance dyads, there are the "tie-flood-yoke-hindrance clusters"; by virtue of the five dyads beginning with the misapprehension dyad, there is the "misapprehension cluster." All seven clusters should be understood. After that, the fourteen dyads beginning with "mental states that have an object" are called "great intermediate dyads." After that, the six dyads beginning with the clinging dyad are called the "clinging cluster." After that, the eight dyads beginning with the defilement dyad are called the "defilement cluster." After that, the eighteen dyads beginning with the dyad of what is to be abandoned by seeing, because they are placed at the end of the Abhidhamma schedule, are called "back dyads." The forty-two dyads beginning with "mental states partaking of true knowledge, mental states partaking of ignorance" are called "suttanta dyads." Thus all of these should be understood as determined by fifteen divisions.

Now, these thus determined become two groups by way of those with extension and those without extension. Among these, nine triads and seventy-one dyads, because they encompass material and immaterial mental states with extension, are called "with extension." The remaining thirteen triads and seventy-one dyads are called "without extension." Therein, among the triads, the feeling triad, the applied-thought triad, the rapture triad, the arisen triad, the past triad, and the four object triads - these nine triads are called "with extension." Among the dyads, at the end of each of the nine clusters from the root-condition cluster to the end of the clinging cluster there are three dyads each, at the end of the defilement cluster there are four dyads, the two great intermediate dyads "mental states associated with mind, mental states dissociated from mind" and "mental states conjoined with mind, mental states disjoined from mind," and among the suttanta dyads, excluding the four dyads - the designation dyad, the language dyad, the concept dyad, and the name-and-form dyad - the remaining thirty-eight dyads - these are called "with extension." The remaining triads and dyads not mentioned should be understood as all being "without extension."

Now, this is the sequential word-commentary on the schedule terms beginning with "wholesome mental states": The word "kusala" is found in the senses of health, blamelessness, skilfulness, and pleasant-result. For this is seen in the sense of health in such passages as "Is it that you are well, is it that you are free from illness" and so on. "But, venerable sir, what bodily conduct is wholesome? That bodily conduct, great king, which is blameless" and "Furthermore, venerable sir, this is the supreme excellence, that the Blessed One teaches the Dhamma regarding wholesome mental states" - in such passages it is found in the sense of blamelessness. In such passages as "You are skilled in the parts and accessories of a chariot," "Skilled women trained in dancing and singing" - it is found in the sense of skilfulness. In such passages as "Because of undertaking wholesome mental states, monks," "Because of the doing and accumulating of wholesome kamma" - it is found in the sense of pleasant-result. Here it applies in the senses of health, blamelessness, and pleasant-result.

Now this word "dhamma" is found in the senses of scriptural learning, cause, virtue, absence of a being and absence of a soul, and so forth. For it is found in the sense of scriptural learning in such passages as "He learns the Dhamma - the discourses, mixed prose and verse" and so forth. In the sense of cause in such passages as "Knowledge of the cause is the analytical knowledge of mental states" and so forth.

In such passages as these, it is found in the sense of virtue. In such passages as "On that occasion there are mental states," "He dwells contemplating mental states in mental states" and so forth, it is found in the sense of absence of a being and absence of a soul. Here too it applies in the sense of absence of a being and absence of a soul.

The meaning of the word here, however, is: They shake, move, agitate, and destroy despicable, evil mental states - thus they are "wholesome" (kusalā). Or, those that lie in a despicable manner are "kusa" (blades of grass). They cut and sever those kusa, which are reckoned as unwholesome - thus they are "wholesome" (kusalā). Or, knowledge is called "kusa" because it makes thin and brings to an end despicable things. They are to be taken up by that kusa (knowledge) - thus they are "wholesome" (kusalā); the meaning is: they are to be grasped and set in motion. Or, just as kusa grass cuts the part of the hand on both sides, so too these cut the defilement side that has gone to both sides through the state of having arisen and not having arisen. Therefore, because they cut like kusa grass, they are also called "wholesome" (kusalā). But they bear their own intrinsic nature - thus they are "mental states" (dhammā). Or, they are borne by conditions, or they are maintained according to their own intrinsic nature - thus they are "mental states" (dhammā). Not wholesome - unwholesome. The meaning is: opposed to the wholesome, just as foes are opposed to friends, and just as non-greed and the like are opposed to greed and the like. "Not declared" means indeterminate; the meaning is: not spoken of as being wholesome or unwholesome. Among these, wholesome states have the characteristic of being blameless and having pleasant results; unwholesome states have the characteristic of being blameworthy and having painful results; indeterminate states have the characteristic of being without results.

But are these terms such as "wholesome" and "mental states" and so forth synonymous or different in meaning? What about this? If they are synonymous, then this expression "wholesome mental states" becomes similar to saying "wholesome-wholesome." If they are different in meaning, then triads and dyads would become hexads and tetrads, and there would be a disconnection of terms.

For just as when the terms "wholesome," "form," and "possessing eyes" are stated, there is no connection whatsoever between terms that do not refer to each other in meaning, so too here a disconnection of terms would arise. And terms that lack connection between what precedes and what follows are indeed purposeless. Moreover, even with the question that follows, "Which mental states are wholesome?" - a contradiction would arise with that too. For mental states are certainly not wholesome; yet this is said - "Which mental states are 'wholesome'?" Another method - If these are synonymous, then from the unity of the three "mental states," the unity of the wholesome and so forth would also follow. For the three "mental states" that are preceded by wholesome and so forth are one by virtue of their nature as mental states. Therefore, the unity of the wholesome and so forth, which are not different in meaning from the triad of mental states, would also follow. "Whatever is wholesome, that is unwholesome, that is indeterminate." "If, however, you do not accept the unity of the three mental states, and you say that the mental state preceded by wholesome is one thing, the mental state preceded by unwholesome is another, and the mental state preceded by indeterminate is yet another, then in that case, a mental state is an existent thing, and what is other than an existent is a non-existent - so the mental states reckoned as existents preceded by wholesome would be one thing, and the mental state preceded by unwholesome would be a non-existent, and likewise the one preceded by indeterminate. And the one preceded by wholesome would also be other than those. Thus the wholesome and so forth, being not different from the mental states that have arrived at non-existence, would themselves be mere non-existents."

All of this is without valid reason. Why? Because conventional usage is established according to accepted convention. For conventional usage is established precisely in the way it is accepted and agreed upon with respect to meanings. Nor is it the case that in such expressions as "wholesome mental states" the statement of 'mental states' preceded by 'wholesome' and the statement of 'wholesome' followed by 'mental states' is accepted by the wise as being without any distinction of meaning, in the manner of saying 'wholesome wholesome'; nor is it the case that the words 'wholesome', 'form', and 'possessing sight' are such that their meanings are mutually unrelated. Rather, the word 'wholesome' is here accepted as illuminating the meaning designated as blameless and productive of pleasant result; the word 'unwholesome' as illuminating the meaning of blameworthy and productive of painful result; the word 'indeterminate' as illuminating the meaning of being without result; and the word 'mental states' as illuminating the meaning of bearing their own intrinsic nature, and so forth. That word 'mental states', being stated immediately after any one of these, indicates the general meaning common to them. For all of these are indeed mental states by the characteristic of bearing their own intrinsic nature, and so forth. And the words 'wholesome' and so forth, being stated before the word 'mental states', indicate their own respective particular meanings to it. For a mental state is either wholesome, or unwholesome, or indeterminate. Thus, when stated separately, they are accepted as each illuminating only their own respective meaning. When stated together with the word 'mental states', they are accepted by the wise in the world as illuminating either the general meaning common to them or their particular meaning. Therefore, whatever has been said here by way of raising objections through the alternative of identity or difference of meaning - all of that is without valid reason. This, then, is the sequential word-commentary on the wholesome triad. By this same method, the method for the remaining triads and dyads should also be understood. Henceforth, however, we shall explain only what is distinctive.

2. In "associated with pleasant feeling" and so forth, the word "pleasant" (sukha) is found in the senses of pleasant feeling, root of pleasure, pleasant object, cause of pleasure, basis for conditions of pleasure, non-affliction, nibbāna, and so forth. For this is found in the sense of pleasant feeling in such passages as "with the abandoning of pleasure." In such passages as "Pleasant is the arising of Buddhas" and "Pleasant is dispassion in the world," it is found in the sense of root of pleasure; in such passages as "Since, Mahāli, form is pleasant, beset by pleasure, engrossed in pleasure," it is found in the sense of pleasant object. In such passages as "This, monks, is a designation for happiness, that is to say, merits" and so on, it is in the sense of a cause of happiness. In such passages as "It is not easy, bhikkhus, to describe how pleasant the heavenly realms are" and "They do not know pleasure who do not see Nandana," it is found in the sense of basis for conditions of pleasure. In such passages as "These states are pleasant abidings in this very life," it is found in the sense of non-affliction. In such passages as "Nibbāna is the supreme pleasure," it is found in the sense of nibbāna. Here, however, it should be understood in the sense of pleasant feeling only. The word "feeling" (vedanā) in such passages as "feelings arise being known" occurs in the sense of what is felt only.

The word "unpleasant" (dukkha) is found in the senses of unpleasant feeling, basis of suffering, unpleasant object, condition of suffering, basis for conditions of suffering, and so forth. For this is seen in the sense of unpleasant feeling in such passages as "with the abandoning of pain" and so on. In such passages as "Birth too is suffering," it is found in the sense of basis of suffering. In such passages as "Because, Mahāli, matter is painful, affected with pain, overwhelmed by pain" and so on, it is used in the sense of a painful object. In such passages as "Painful is the accumulation of evil" and so on, it is used in the sense of a condition for suffering. In such passages as "It is not easy, bhikkhus, to describe how painful the hells are," it is found in the sense of basis for conditions of suffering. Here, however, it should be understood in the sense of unpleasant feeling only.

The meaning of the word here, however, is: It gives pleasure, thus it is pleasant (sukhā). It afflicts - thus unpleasant (dukkhā). Neither unpleasant nor pleasant, thus it is neither-unpleasant-nor-pleasant (adukkhamasukhā). The syllable "ma" is stated for the purpose of euphonic conjunction. All of them experience, undergo the flavour of the object, thus they are feelings (vedanā). Among those, pleasant feeling has the characteristic of experiencing the desirable; unpleasant feeling has the characteristic of experiencing the undesirable; neither-unpleasant-nor-pleasant feeling has the characteristic of experiencing the opposite of both. Now, as for the word "associated" (sampayutta) in all three terms, its meaning is: Conjoined equally by way of modes, thus they are associated (sampayuttā). By which modes? By co-arising and so forth. "Are there no states associated with any states? Yes" - for in the refutation of this question, the meaning of association is stated by way of co-arising and so forth thus: "Are there not some states that are accompanied by, co-born with, commingled with, of single arising, of single cessation, of single base, and of single object as some states?" Thus, conjoined equally by these modes of co-arising and so forth, they are associated (sampayuttā).

3. In the Resultant Triplet, "resultant" (vipākā) means the results (pākā) of wholesome and unwholesome states that are mutually distinct. This is a designation for mental states that have attained the condition of having ripened. "States that have resultant quality" (vipākadhammadhammā) means states whose intrinsic nature is to produce results. Just as beings whose intrinsic nature is birth and ageing, whose natural condition is birth and ageing, are called "subject to birth" and "subject to ageing," so too the meaning is that states whose intrinsic nature is to produce results, whose natural condition is to produce results, in the sense of generating results. The third term is stated by way of the rejection of both natures.

4. In the triad of clung-to and subject to clinging, "clung-to" (upādinnā) means taken up (ādinnā) by kamma that is accompanied (upetena) by craving and views by way of making them objects, grasped as their fruit. "Subject to clinging" (upādāniyā) means beneficial to the clingings (upādānānaṃ hitā) by having reached the state of being objects and through connection with clinging. This is a designation for those states that serve as object-conditions for clinging. They are both clung-to and subject to clinging, thus "clung-to and subject to clinging" (upādiṇṇupādāniyā); this is a designation for material and immaterial states produced by kamma with taints. Thus, by this method, the meaning of the remaining two terms should be understood as including negation.

5. In the triad of defiled and subject to defilement, "it defiles" means defilement; the meaning is that it afflicts and torments. "Endowed with defilement" means defiled. They are worthy of defilement by occurring having made themselves as object, or they are engaged in defilement, because they do not transcend the state of being its object - thus they are "subject to defilement." This is a designation for those that serve as object-conditions of defilement. They are defiled and they are subject to defilement - thus they are "defiled and subject to defilement." The remaining two terms should also be understood in the same manner as stated in the preceding triad.

6. In the triad of applied thought, those occurring by way of association together with applied thought are "with applied thought." Those together with sustained thought are "with sustained thought." Those that are with applied thought and with sustained thought are "with applied and sustained thought." Those devoid of both are "without applied and sustained thought." Among applied and sustained thought, sustained thought alone is the measure, the extent, of these - thus they are "sustained thought only." The meaning is that beyond sustained thought, they do not enter into association with applied thought. Those that are without applied thought and are sustained thought only - thus they are "without applied but sustained thought only."

7. In the Rapture Triad, "accompanied by rapture" means having gone to the state of co-arising and so forth together with rapture; the meaning is "associated with rapture." The same method applies to the remaining two terms as well. Here, "equanimity" refers to neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. For it looks on (upekkhati) at the occurrence in the mode of pleasure and pain, and because it is established in a neutral mode, it occurs in that mode - thus it is "equanimity." Thus, having taken just two terms from the feeling triad, this triad is stated for the purpose of showing the distinction of pleasure without rapture from pleasure with rapture.

8. In the triad of vision, "through vision" means through the path of stream-entry. For that is called "vision" because it sees nibbāna for the first time. Although the change-of-lineage (gotrabhu) sees it even earlier, just as a man who has come to the king's presence on some business, even having seen the king from afar walking along the street seated on an elephant's back, when asked "Have you seen the king?" says "I have not seen him" - even though he has seen him - because the task to be done has not been accomplished. In the same way, even though nibbāna has been seen, because of the absence of the abandonment of defilements that is to be accomplished, it is not called "vision." For that knowledge stands in the place of adverting for the path. "By meditative development" means by the remaining three paths. For the remaining three paths arise by way of meditative development regarding the very same dhamma seen by the first path; they do not see anything not previously seen, therefore they are called "meditative development." The third term is stated by way of the rejection of both.

9. In the triad immediately following, "the root to be abandoned through vision belongs to these" - thus they are "connected with root to be abandoned through vision." In the second term too, the same method applies. In the third term, the meaning should not be taken as "the root to be abandoned neither through vision nor by meditative development belongs to these"; rather, the meaning should be taken as "there exists in these a root that is to be abandoned neither through vision nor by meditative development." For otherwise, rootless states would not be included; for they simply have no root that could be abandoned through vision or meditative development. Even among those with roots, the abandoning would apply to those other than the roots, not to the roots themselves; for it is only the root of these that is said to be "to be abandoned neither through vision nor by meditative development," not those states themselves. And both of these interpretations are not intended. Therefore, the meaning should be taken as "connected with root to be abandoned neither through vision nor by meditative development" means "there exists in these a root that is to be abandoned neither through vision nor by meditative development."

10. In the section on leading to accumulation: that which is accumulated by the defilements of kamma is accumulation (ācaya). This is the designation for rebirth-linking, death, destination, and occurrence. Being the cause thereof, by way of producing it, they lead to that accumulation; or they lead the person for whom they occur to accumulation as already described - thus they are "leading to accumulation" (ācayagāmino); this is a designation for states that are wholesome and unwholesome with taints. Because it is separated from accumulation - that is, from the heaping up designated as accumulation - Nibbāna is "separated from accumulation" (apacaya), thus non-accumulation. Because they occur having made that their object, they lead to non-accumulation - thus they are "leading to non-accumulation" (apacayagāmino); this is a designation for the noble paths. Furthermore, like a bricklayer building a wall, those that proceed accumulating occurrence are "leading to accumulation." Like a person demolishing brick after brick that has been piled up by him, those that proceed diminishing that very occurrence are "leading to non-accumulation." The third term is stated by way of the rejection of both.

11. In the Trainee Triplet: "born in the three trainings" - thus they are trainees (sekkhā). "These belong to the seven trainees" - thus too they are trainees. "Because their training is not yet completed, they themselves are still training" - thus too they are trainees. "Because there is nothing further to be trained in, they are not trainees" - thus they are beyond training (asekkhā). Or, "those who have attained the highest development of training" - thus too they are beyond training. This is a designation for the states of the fruit of arahantship. The third term is stated by way of the rejection of both.

12. In the triad of the limited, because of being broken on all sides, something small is called "limited"; as in such passages as "a limited lump of cow dung." These too are called "limited" because they are as if of little power; this is a designation for sense-sphere states. Having reached the state of greatness through the ability to suppress defilements, through abundant fruit, and through long continuity, or having been attained through great and superior desire, energy, mind, and wisdom - thus they are "exalted." The states that make a measure, namely lust and so forth, are called "measure." Either by way of object or by way of association there is no measure for these, and they are the opposite of measure - thus they are "limitless."

13. In the triad of those with a limited object, "a limited object is theirs" - thus they are "with a limited object." The same method applies to the remaining two terms as well.

14. In the inferior triad, "inferior" means low, unwholesome states. "Medium" means those that exist between the inferior and the superior. The remaining states of the three planes are "superior" in the sense of being supreme and in the sense of being unsatiating; supramundane states.

15. In the Wrongness Triad, they are of wrong nature (micchattā) because, even though wished for thus: "They will bring me benefit and happiness," they do not actually do so, and because they operate in a perverted manner, such as perceiving beauty in what is foul and so forth; they are fixed (niyatā) because, when there is giving of result, they give result immediately after the breaking up of the aggregates; they are of wrong nature and they are fixed, thus they are fixed in wrongness (micchattaniyatā). They are of right nature (sammattā) because they are of true nature, in the sense opposite to what has been stated; they are of right nature and they are fixed, by giving fruit immediately, thus they are fixed in rightness (sammattaniyatā). Those that are not fixed in either way are unfixed (aniyatā).

16. In the triad of having the path as object: it seeks, searches for nibbāna, or it goes destroying the defilements - thus it is the path (magga). The path is the object of these - thus they have the path as object (maggārammaṇā). The eightfold path too is the root of these in the sense of being a condition - thus they are connected with the path as root (maggahetukā). The roots associated with the path, or the roots in the path - thus they are path-roots (maggahetū). Those are the roots of these - thus too they are connected with the path as root (maggahetukā). Right view is itself both path and root. Thus the path is the root of these - in this way too they are connected with the path as root (maggahetukā). The path is the predominance of these in the sense of proceeding by overcoming - thus they have the path as predominance (maggādhipatino).

17. In the Arisen Triplet, "arisen" means having gone upward, having proceeded from the moment of arising up to the moment of dissolution. "Not arisen" means unarisen. "States subject to arise" means those that will certainly arise, because a portion of their cause has been fully completed.

18. In the Triad of the Past, "past" means having reached their own intrinsic nature or the moment of arising and so forth, and then having passed beyond. "Future" means those that have not yet come to either of those two. "Present" means those that have arisen dependent on this and that cause.

19. In the next triad, "that which is past is the object of these" - thus they are "having a past object." The same method applies to the remaining two terms as well.

20. In the triad of internal states, "internal" (ajjhattā) means: occurring with the grasping "we who are occurring thus are a self," having made oneself the subject with an intention as if "we shall go." Now this word "ajjhatta" is seen in four senses: as the domain-internal, as the own-internal, as the internal-internal, and as the object-internal. In such passages as "Therefore, Ānanda, that monk should steady the mind internally upon that very same previous sign of concentration," and "Delighting internally, concentrated" - here it is seen in the sense of domain-internal. In such passages as "Internal tranquillity," and "One dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena internally" - in the sense of own-internal. In such passages as "The six internal sense bases" - in the sense of internal-internal. In such passages as "But, Ānanda, this dwelling has been fully awakened to by the Tathāgata, namely, by not attending to any signs, one enters upon and dwells in internal emptiness" - in the sense of object-internal; the meaning is "the place of sovereignty." For fruition attainment is indeed called the place of mastery of the Buddhas. Here, however, the own-internal is intended. Therefore, states that are personal, occurring in one's own continuum, should be understood as "internal." But those that are external to that, whether bound to the sense faculties or not bound to the sense faculties, are called "external." The third term is stated by way of both of those.

21. The immediately following triplet is stated by way of occurring having made those very same three kinds of states as object.

22. In the triad of the manifest: "manifest" (sanidassanā) means with manifestation (nidassana), which is reckoned as the state of being visible (daṭṭhabbabhāva). "Impinging" (sappaṭighā) means with impingement (paṭigha), which is reckoned as the state of striking against (paṭihananabhāva). "Manifest and impinging" (sanidassanasappaṭighā) means they are both manifest and impinging. "Non-manifest" (anidassanā) means there is no manifestation for them, which is reckoned as the state of being visible. "Non-manifest but impinging" (anidassanasappaṭighā) means they are non-manifest and impinging in the manner already stated. The third term is stated by way of the rejection of both. This, for now, is the sequential explanation of the terms of the triad matrix.

The explanation of the terms of the Tika-mātikā is concluded.

Explanation of the Terms of the Twofold Matrix

1-6. In the dyad matrix, however, we shall explain only the terms not yet dealt with in the triads. In the root group, firstly, "states that are roots" means states reckoned as roots in the sense of being a foundation. "Hetū dhammā" is also a reading. "Not roots" is the term of negation of those very same. "With roots" means having a root that occurs together by way of association. "Rootless" means there is no root that occurs in just that way for these. "Associated with a root" means associated with a root by virtue of arising together, etc. "Dissociated from a root" means dissociated from a root. Although there is no difference in meaning between these two dyads, they are stated by way of the elegance of teaching or according to the disposition of persons who understand in that way. Thereafter, by combining the first dyad with the second and third, three further dyads are stated according to what is possible, by virtue of the terms "roots," "not roots," etc. Therein, just as "states that are roots and also with roots" is possible, so too is "states that are roots and also rootless." And just as "states that are with roots but not roots" is possible, so too is "states that are rootless but not roots." The same method applies also to the combination with the root-associated dyad.

Therein, since it is already established that "states that are not roots are both with roots and rootless," the additional term "kho pana" is stated in "states that are not roots, however"; by virtue of that, it should be understood that this additional meaning is included. How? Not only are "states that are not roots" also others that are "neither with roots nor rootless" in just that way, but also in another way. This is what is meant - Just as "states that are not roots are both with roots and rootless," so too "states that are roots are both with roots and rootless." And just as "states that are not roots are both with roots and rootless," so too "states that are not roots are both associated with a root and dissociated from a root."

7-13. In the Minor Intermediate Couplets, "with condition" (sappaccayā) means together with the condition that produces them. "Without condition" (appaccayā) means there is no condition for their arising or persistence. "Conditioned" (saṅkhatā) means made by conditions coming together. "Not conditioned" means "unconditioned" (asaṅkhatā). "Possessing form" (rūpino) means form exists in them in an inseparable manner. "Formless" (arūpino) means such form does not exist in them. Or, form is that which has the characteristic of being afflicted; "possessing form" (rūpino) means that exists in them. "Not possessing form" means "formless" (arūpino). Regarding "mundane states" (lokiyā dhammā): "world" (loko) is said to be the round of existence in the sense of disintegrating and breaking apart; "mundane" (lokiyā) means engaged in the world by being included therein. "Emerged from that" means "transcendent" (uttarā); "supramundane" (lokuttarā) means transcending the world by not being included in the world. "Cognisable by some" (kenaci viññeyyā) means to be cognised by some one among eye-consciousness and so forth, either by eye-consciousness or by ear-consciousness. "Not cognisable by some" (kenaci na viññeyyā) means not to be cognised by that very same eye-consciousness or ear-consciousness. This being so, the couplet arises from the difference in meaning of both terms.

14-19. In the mental corruption group, they corrupt (āsavanti), thus they are mental corruptions (āsavā). From the eye etc. from the mind too they stream and proceed - this is what is said. Or, they flow (savanti) with respect to states up to the change-of-lineage, and with respect to realm up to the peak of existence, thus they are mental corruptions (āsavā). The meaning is that they occur having included within them these states and this realm. For this prefix 'ā' has the sense of including within. In the sense of having been long-fermented, intoxicating liquors and the like are called āsavā (fermentations). They are like fermentations (āsavā), thus too they are mental corruptions (āsavā). For in the world, liquor and so on that have long been dwelling are called mental corruptions (āsavā). And if mental corruptions in the sense of having long been dwelling, these very ones deserve to be so. For this was said: "A first point, monks, is not discerned of ignorance: 'Before this, ignorance did not exist'" and so on. Or, mental corruptions also because they flow and produce the extended suffering of the round of rebirths (saṃsāra). Others apart from those are called non-mental corruptions. They are with mental corruptions (sāsavā) because they occur together with the mental corruptions, having made themselves their object. They are without mental corruptions (anāsavā) because for those occurring in this way, there are no mental corruptions. The remainder should be understood in the manner stated in the root-condition group. But this is the distinction - just as there the concluding couplet "non-root-condition states are with root-conditions and without root-conditions" was stated by placing the second term of the first couplet at the beginning, so here "non-mental corruption states are with mental corruptions and without mental corruptions" was not stated. Although it was not stated, this and the other distinction should be understood in the very manner stated there.

20-25. In the fetter group: they fetter, that is, bind that person in whom they exist to the round of existence - thus they are "fetters" (saṃyojanā). Those other than these are called "non-fetters" (no saṃyojanā). Having assumed the status of objects, they are beneficial to the fetters in the connection of fettering - thus they are "fetter-related" (saṃyojaniyā). This is a designation for those that serve as object-conditions for the fetters. Those that are not fetter-related are "non-fetter-related" (asaṃyojaniyā). The remainder should be construed in the same manner as stated in the root-cause group.

26-31. In the mental knot group, those which are found in a person tie and bind him in the round of existence by way of death and rebirth - thus they are "mental knots." Those other than these are "non-mental knots." Those that are to be tied by the mental knots by way of being made their object are "liable to mental knots." The remainder should be construed in the same manner as stated in the root-cause group. And just as here, so too in the subsequent groups, what remains unstated should be understood in each case in the same manner as stated therein.

32-37. In the flood group, they are called "floods" (oghā) because they submerge (ohananti), that is, cause to sink (osīdāpenti), the one in whom they exist, in the round of existence itself. They are called "subject to floods" (oghaniyā) because they must be overcome (atikkamitabbā) by the floods, having been made their object, since they are to be surmounted. They should be understood as the very states that are objects of the floods.

38-43. They bind to the round of existence in the group of bonds, thus they are mental bonds (yogā). The mental bond-related (yoganiyā) should be understood in the same way as the flood-related (oghaniyā).

44-49. In the Hindrance Group: they are called hindrances (nīvaraṇā) because they hinder and envelop the mind. States liable to hindrances (nīvaraṇiyā) should be understood in the same way as states liable to fetters (saṃyojaniyā).

50-54. In the adherence group, having gone beyond the actual characteristic of impermanence and so forth of states, those that operate by way of grasping as 'permanent' and so forth, touching wrongly, are adherences (parāmāsā). Because they are adhered to (parāmaṭṭhā) by adherences by way of being made into objects, they are called adhered to (parāmaṭṭhā).

55-68. In the Greater Pairs, "with sense-object" (sārammaṇā) means together with a sense-object, since they do not occur without having taken a sense-object. "Without sense-object" (anārammaṇā) means there is no sense-object for these. "Mind" (cittā) in the sense of cognising, or "mind" (cittā) in the sense of being variegated. "Mental" (cetasikā) means yoked to the mind by way of inseparability. "Mixed with mind" (cittasaṃsaṭṭhā) means mixed with mind from arising up to dissolution, by way of approaching a state of uninterruptedness. "Unmixed with mind" (cittavisaṃsaṭṭhā) means unmixed with mind because of not approaching a state of uninterruptedness, even though occurring together. "Origin" (samuṭṭhānaṃ) means that by which they originate. "Having mind as origin" (cittasamuṭṭhānā) means mind is the origin of these. "Co-existing" (sahabhuno) means they exist together. "Co-existing with mind" (cittasahabhuno) means co-existing with mind. "Following" (anuparivattino) means they follow along. What do they follow along? Mind. "Following mind" (cittānuparivattino) means following along with mind. "Mixed with and originated by mind" (cittasaṃsaṭṭhasamuṭṭhānā) means they are mixed with mind and originated by mind. "Mixed with, originated by, and co-existing with mind" (cittasaṃsaṭṭhasamuṭṭhānasahabhuno) means they are mixed with mind, originated by mind, and indeed co-existing with mind. "Mixed with, originated by, and following mind" (cittasaṃsaṭṭhasamuṭṭhānānuparivattino) means they are mixed with mind, originated by mind, and indeed following mind. The remaining terms should be understood by way of negation of the stated terms. "Internal" (ajjhattikā) means just internal, as stated in the internal triad, with reference to what is internal within oneself. "External" (bāhirā) means being outside of that. "Derived" (upādā) means they derive from the great elements themselves, they are not derived like the great elements. "Not derived" (noupādā) means they are simply not derived.

69-74. They are called "clinging" (upādānā) because they firmly grasp (bhusaṃ ādiyanti) the groups of clinging; the meaning is that they take hold with a tenacious grip. Those other than these are non-clinging.

75-82. In the Defilement Group, the meaning should be understood in the same manner as stated in the Defiled Triplet.

83-100. In the subsequent pairs, "they range in sense-desires" - thus they are sense-sphere (kāmāvacarā); "they range in form" - thus they are form-sphere (rūpāvacarā). They frequent in immaterial existence - thus they are of the immaterial-sphere. This is the summary here. The detail, however, will become clear further on. "Included" (pariyāpannā) means included within the round of the three planes. "Not included in that" means not-included (apariyāpannā). Cutting the root of the round of rebirths, having made Nibbāna their object, they lead out from the round of rebirths - thus they are leading to liberation. "Not leading out" (aniyyānikā) means they do not lead out by this characteristic. "Fixed" (niyatā) means fixed in giving their fruit immediately after death or after their own occurrence. "Unfixed" (aniyatā) means similarly being unfixed. "Superior" (uttarā) means they surpass, that is, they abandon other states. "With something superior" (sauttarā) means together with superior states that are capable of surpassing them. "Without superior" (anuttarā) means there is nothing superior to these. "They cause conflict" - thus they are conflicts (raṇā); beings overcome by which cry and lament in various ways - this is a designation for those defilements beginning with lust and the like. "With conflicts" (saraṇā) means together with conflicts by way of association and by way of being in the same place as what is to be abandoned. "Without conflicts" (araṇā) means in that manner there are no conflicts in these.

Explanation of the Terms of the Suttanta Twofold Matrix

101-108. In the Suttantika pairs, they partake of true knowledge by way of association, thus they are "conducive to true knowledge"; they occur in the portion of true knowledge, in the division of true knowledge, thus too they are "conducive to true knowledge." Therein, insight knowledge, mind-made supernormal power, and the six direct knowledges - these are the eight true knowledges. By the former meaning, the states associated with those are also conducive to true knowledge. By the latter meaning, whichever one among those is a true knowledge, that is true knowledge. The rest are conducive to true knowledge. Thus it should be understood that both true knowledge itself and the states associated with true knowledge are indeed conducive to true knowledge. Here, however, only the associated states are intended. They partake of ignorance by way of association, thus they are "conducive to ignorance." They occur in the portion of ignorance, in the division of ignorance, thus too they are "conducive to ignorance." Therein, the darkness that conceals suffering, that which conceals the origin, etc. - these are the four ignorances. By the former method, the states associated with those are also conducive to ignorance. Whichever one among those is an ignorance, that is ignorance. The rest are conducive to ignorance. Thus it should be understood that both ignorance itself and the states associated with ignorance are indeed conducive to ignorance. Here, however, only the associated states are intended.

Furthermore, because of their inability to destroy the darkness of defilements by not overwhelming it, lightning is their simile, thus they are "like lightning." Because of their ability to destroy completely, the thunderbolt is their simile, thus they are "like a thunderbolt." Because of being established in fools, those in which they are established are called "foolish" by way of proximity. Because of being established in the wise, they are "wise." Or they are "foolish" because of making one foolish, and "wise" because of making one wise. "Dark" means black, making the mind lose its luminous nature. "Bright" means white, making the mind luminous in nature. Or they are "dark" because of being the cause of dark birth; they are "bright" because of being the cause of bright birth. They torment both here and in the hereafter, thus they are "tormenting." Not tormenting is "non-tormenting."

The three pairs beginning with the designation pair are not different in meaning; only the phrasing here is different. For "Sirivaḍḍhaka" and "Dhanavaḍḍhaka" and so forth are designations that have come into use based merely on verbal expression as the governing factor. The paths of designations are "designation-paths." Expressions that are spoken by way of derivation and with a causal basis, such as "Because they construct, monks, therefore they are formations" - these are called "language." The paths of language are "language-paths." Because of making known in various ways, such as "reasoning, thought, intention" - this is called "description." The paths of descriptions are "description-paths." And here, the purpose of stating the others even after stating one pair should be understood in the same way as explained in the group of causes.

109-118. In the mentality-materiality dyad, mentality (nāma) is so called in the sense of naming (nāmakaraṇa), in the sense of bending towards (namana), and in the sense of being named (nāmana). Materiality (rūpa) is so called in the sense of being afflicted (ruppana). This is the summary here. The detailed explanation, however, will become clear in the Classification Chapter. "Ignorance" means not knowing regarding suffering and so on. "Craving for existence" means longing for existence. "View of existence" (bhavadiṭṭhi) - "existence" (bhava) is called eternalism (sassata); it is a view arising by way of eternalism. "View of non-existence" (vibhavadiṭṭhi) - "non-existence" (vibhava) is called annihilation (uccheda); it is a view arising by way of annihilation. A view that occurs as "the self and the world are eternal" is eternalist view (sassatadiṭṭhi). A view that occurs as "it will be annihilated" is annihilationist view (ucchedadiṭṭhi). A view that occurs as "it is finite" is the finitist view (antavādiṭṭhi). A view that occurs as "it is infinite" is the infinitist view (anantavādiṭṭhi). A view that follows the past is a view speculating about the past (pubbantānudiṭṭhi). A view that follows the future is a view speculating about the future (aparantānudiṭṭhi). "Lack of moral shame" (ahirika) means that which does not feel shame regarding what ought to be ashamed of - thus explained in detail, it is shamelessness. "Lack of moral dread" (anottappa) means that which does not feel dread regarding what ought to be dreaded - thus explained in detail, it is the absence of fear. The act of feeling shame is moral shame (hirī); the act of feeling dread is moral dread (ottappa). Regarding "difficulty of admonishment" (dovacassatā) and so forth: one in whom speech is difficult - that is, a person who grasps contrarily, who delights in opposition, who is disrespectful - is difficult to admonish (dubbaca). His action is being difficult to admonish (dovacassa). The state of that is difficulty of admonishment (dovacassatā). One whose friends are evil persons such as the faithless and so forth is one with evil friends (pāpamitta); the state of that is evil friendship (pāpamittatā). Ease of admonishment (sovacassatā) and good friendship (kalyāṇamittatā) should be understood by the method of the opposite of what has been stated.

119-123. Skilfulness in offences that have been stated thus: "The five classes of offences are offences, the seven classes of offences are offences" is skilfulness in offences. Skilfulness in emerging from those offences is skilfulness in emerging from offences. Skilfulness in attainments is skilfulness in attainments. This is a designation for the wisdom that defines the absorption of attainments. Skilfulness in emerging from attainments is skilfulness in emerging from attainments. Skilfulness in the eighteen elements is skilfulness in elements. Skilfulness in attending to those very elements is skilfulness in attention. Skilfulness in the eye-base and so forth is skilfulness in sense-bases. Skilfulness in the twelve-factored dependent origination is skilfulness in dependent origination. Skilfulness in each and every ground is skilfulness in the possible. "Ground" means cause. For the result stands, as it were, in dependence upon that, because its occurrence is dependent upon that; therefore it is called "ground." Skilfulness in what is not a ground is skilfulness in the impossible.

124-134. The state of being straight is rectitude (ajjava). The state of being soft is gentleness (maddava). The state of enduring, reckoned as forbearing, is patience (khanti). The state of one who is well-disposed is docility (soracca). Amiability (sākhalya) is the state of being agreeable, reckoned as the state of being pleasantly soft. Hospitality (paṭisanthāra) is welcoming with the Dhamma and with material gifts in such a way that there is no fault on one's own part towards others. Non-restraint of the sense faculties (indriyesu aguttadvāratā) is the state of having unguarded doors in the sense faculties including the mind as the sixth, reckoned as a breach of sense-restraint. Not knowing moderation in eating (bhojane amattaññutā) is the state of not knowing the right measure in food with respect to receiving and consuming. The next couplet should be understood by the method of the opposite of what has been stated. Lack of clear awareness (muṭṭhassacca) is the state of confused mindfulness, reckoned as the absence of mindfulness. Lack of clear comprehension (asampajañña) is the state of not clearly comprehending. One remembers - thus it is mindfulness (sati). One clearly comprehends - thus it is clear comprehension (sampajañña). The power of reflection (paṭisaṅkhānabala) is the strength reckoned as reflective consideration, in the sense of being unshakeable in the face of what has not been reflected upon. The power of development (bhāvanābala) is the strength arisen in one who develops the seven factors of enlightenment with energy as the leader. It appeases the opposing states - thus serenity. It sees in various modes such as impermanence and so forth - thus it is insight (vipassanā). The sign of tranquillity (samathanimiṭṭa) is tranquillity itself, by way of being the sign for the tranquillity that is to be continued, having taken up that mode. The same method applies to the sign of exertion as well. It uplifts the associated states - thus it is exertion (paggāha). It does not scatter - thus it is non-distraction (avikkhepa).

135-142. Failure in morality (sīlavipatti) is the failure of morality, which is reckoned as non-restraint, destructive of morality. Failure in view (diṭṭhivipatti) is the failure of view, which is reckoned as wrong view, destructive of right view. Accomplishment in morality (sīlasampadā) is the accomplishment of morality, since good conduct itself is the fulfilment of morality, the completion of morality. Accomplishment in view (diṭṭhisampadā) is the accomplishment of view, which is the knowledge that constitutes the fulfilment of view. Purification of morality (sīlavisuddhi) is the purification of morality, which is reckoned as morality that has attained the state of purity. Purification of view (diṭṭhivisuddhi) is the purification of view, which is reckoned as seeing, capable of leading to the purification reckoned as nibbāna. "Purification of view and the striving of one with such view" means purification of view reckoned as the knowledge of the ownership of actions and so forth, and the striving associated with that very view of one whose view is corresponding, whose view is wholesome. "Sense of urgency" (saṃvega) means the agitation reckoned as fear arisen on account of birth and so forth. "Grounds for a sense of urgency" (saṃvejaniyaṭṭhāna) means the cause beginning with birth that generates a sense of urgency. "And the wise striving of one stirred with a sense of urgency" means the methodical striving of one in whom a sense of urgency has arisen. "And dissatisfaction with wholesome states" means the state of not being satisfied with the fulfilment of wholesome states. "And not turning back from striving" means not turning back, not falling back from striving without having attained arahantship. It is true knowledge (vijjā) because of knowing clearly. It is liberation (vimutti) because of being released. "Knowledge of destruction" means knowledge in the noble path that effects the destruction of mental defilements. "Knowledge of non-arising" means knowledge regarding the noble fruit that has arisen at the conclusion of the non-arising of those defilements to be destroyed by each respective path, which are in the state of non-arising by way of renewed existence. This is the sequential explanation of the terms of the matrix.

The explanation of the terms of the Duka-mātikā is concluded.

Analysis of the Terms of Sense-Sphere Wholesome

1. Now, in order to show in detail the mental states comprised in the matrix as it has been laid down, this word-commentary beginning with "What mental states are wholesome?" has been commenced. Therein, as regards what has been shown as the first sensual-sphere wholesome, namely "At whatever time wholesome consciousness of the sensual sphere has arisen," in its exposition there are three great sections: the section on determination of mental states, the section on inclusion, and the section on voidness. Among these, the section on determination of mental states stands in two parts by way of synopsis and exposition. Among these, the synopsis section has four divisions: the question, the definition of occasion, the enumeration of mental states, and the inclusion. Among these, "What mental states are wholesome?" - this is called the question. "At whatever time sensual-sphere" etc. "at that time" - this is called the definition of occasion. "There is contact" etc. "there is non-distraction" - this is called the enumeration of mental states. "Or whatever other dependently arisen immaterial mental states there are at that time - these mental states are wholesome" - this is called the inclusion.

Thus, of the synopsis section standing with four divisions, as regards this first division of the question, therein "What mental states are wholesome?" - this is a question born of the desire to teach. Questions are fivefold: A question for illuminating what has not been seen, a question for comparing what has been seen, a question for cutting off doubt, a question of approval, and a question from the wish to speak. Their diversity is as follows -

What is the question for illuminating what has not been seen? By nature, a characteristic is unknown, unseen, unweighed, unexamined, unclear, unelucidated. One asks a question for the purpose of knowing it, seeing it, weighing it, examining it, making it clear, and elucidating it. This is the question for illuminating what has not been seen.

What is the question for comparing what has been seen? By nature, a characteristic is known, seen, weighed, examined, clear, elucidated; he asks a question for the purpose of comparing it with other wise persons. This is the question for comparing what has been seen.

What is the question for cutting off doubt? By nature, one has fallen into uncertainty, fallen into perplexity, become of two minds: "Is it so, is it not so, what is it, how is it?" He asks a question for the purpose of cutting off doubt. This is the question for cutting off doubt.

What is a question of approval? The Blessed One asks the monks a question by way of approval - "What do you think, monks, is form permanent or impermanent?" "Impermanent, Venerable Sir." "But is what is impermanent suffering or happiness?" "Suffering, Venerable Sir." "But is it fitting to regard what is impermanent, suffering, and subject to change as 'this is mine, this I am, this is my self'?" "Surely not, Venerable Sir." This is a question of approval.

What is a question from the wish to speak? The Blessed One asks the monks a question from the wish to speak. "Monks, there are these four establishments of mindfulness. What four?" This is a question from the wish to speak.

Therein, the first three questions do not exist for the Buddhas. Why? For the Buddhas, in the three periods of time there is nothing conditioned, or unconditioned that is free from the periods, that is unseen, unknown, unilluminated, unweighed, unexamined, unmanifest, or unelucidated. Therefore, for them there is no question for illuminating the unseen. But whatever has been penetrated by the Blessed One through his own knowledge, there is no need to compare that with any other ascetic or brahmin or god or Māra or Brahmā. Therefore the question for comparing what has been seen does not exist for him. But because he is free from doubt, has crossed over sceptical doubt, has destroyed doubt regarding all phenomena, therefore the question for cutting off doubt does not exist for him. The other two questions, however, do exist for the Blessed One. Among those, this should be understood as the question out of desire to speak.

Therein, by the word "what" he asks about the mental states to be described. For by the mere statement "wholesome mental states," it is not possible to know "what are they or what do they do." But when "what" is said, their state of being asked about becomes apparent. Therefore it is said "by the word 'what' he asks about the mental states to be described." By the pair of words "wholesome mental states" he shows the mental states asked about in the question. Their meaning has already been explained above.

But why here, unlike in the matrix, was the word order "mental states that are wholesome" used instead of saying "wholesome mental states"? In order to show those possessing distinctions, having indicated the teaching of mental states by way of distinction. For in this Abhidhamma, it is mental states themselves that are to be taught. And they are of manifold distinctions through distinctions such as wholesome and so forth. Therefore it is mental states themselves that are to be taught here. This is not a conventional teaching. And they are to be taught by way of manifold distinction, not merely as mental states. For teaching by way of distinction brings about the knowledge of analytical discrimination that penetrates the compact. Thus, having indicated the teaching of mental states by way of distinction as "wholesome mental states," now in order to show those mental states that are to be taught by that distinction, this word order "what mental states are wholesome" was made - so it should be understood. For when those possessing distinctions have been shown, the distinction being shown is fitting and becomes easy to understand.

Now, "at whatever time wholesome consciousness of the sensual sphere." Herein -

For when indicating "at whatever time wholesome consciousness of the sensual sphere," the Blessed One indicated consciousness at the occasion. Why? By that consciousness delimited by the occasion, at the conclusion, having delimited the occasion thus "at that time," then, even though there is diversity of occasions, at whatever time there is consciousness, at that very time there is contact, there is feeling - thus the meaning is: to make understood these mental states such as contact, feeling, etc., which are difficult to comprehend due to the compactness of continuity, group, function, and object, at that occasion delimited by consciousness.

Now, in the phrases beginning with "at whatever time," this is the sequential word commentary. "At whatever" is a locative indication in an indefinite sense. "Time" is the elucidation of what was indicated indefinitely. By this much, the occasion has been indicated in an indefinite sense. Therein the word "occasion" (samaya) -

For thus indeed, in such passages as "Perhaps tomorrow we might approach, taking into account the time and occasion," the meaning is combination. In such passages as "There is just one, monks, opportune moment and right time for abiding by the holy life," it means moment. In such passages as "the hot season, the feverish season," it means time. In such passages as "A great assembly in the wilds," it means multitude. In passages such as "This reason too, Bhaddāli, was not penetrated by you - the Blessed One dwells at Sāvatthī, and the Blessed One will know me thus: 'the monk named Bhaddāli is one who does not fulfil the training in the Teacher's dispensation.' This occasion too was not understood by you, Bhaddāli" - in such passages it means cause. In such passages as "Now at that time the wandering ascetic Uggāhamāna, son of Samaṇamuṇḍikā, was dwelling at the debating hall in the Tinduka row, the single-halled park of Mallikā," it means view.

In such passages and so on, it means attainment. In such passages as "through the complete full realization of conceit, he made an end of suffering" and so on, it means abandoning. In such passages as "suffering has the meaning of oppression, the meaning of conditioned, the meaning of torment, the meaning of change, the meaning of full realization" and so on, it means penetration. Thus, among these many occasions -

For in this subject of the wholesome, "at whatever time wholesome of the sensual sphere," among those nine occasions, these five occasions beginning with concurrence should be understood by the wise.

For the concurrence of conditions established by the capacity to produce a common result is what should be understood here as concurrence. What is stated as "There is, monks, just one moment and one occasion for the living of the holy life" - this should be understood as the ninth moment alone being the one moment. Or alternatively, those stated as "There are, monks, four wheels, endowed with which the four-wheeled fortune of deities and humans rolls on" - here the four wheels are stated as 'dwelling in a suitable place, association with good persons, right self-aspiration, and having formerly made merit'; or these, taken together, should be understood as a moment in the sense of opportunity. For these are the basis of opportunity for the arising of wholesome states.

Having thus understood concurrence and moment, regarding the remaining ones -

For by the method of 'time of consciousness, time of matter' and so on, in dependence on mental states; or by the method of 'past, future' and so on, in dependence on the occurrence of mental states; or by the method of 'time of seed, time of sprout' and so on, in dependence on the sequence of mental states; or by the method of 'time of arising, time of ageing' and so on, in dependence on the characteristics of mental states; or by the method of 'time of feeling, time of perceiving' and so on, in dependence on the function of mental states; or by the method of 'time for bathing, time for drinking' and so on, in dependence on the activities of beings; or by the method of 'time for going, time for standing' and so on, in dependence on bodily postures; or by the method of 'forenoon, afternoon, day, night' and so on, in dependence on the revolution of the moon, sun and so forth; or by the method of 'half-month, month' and so on, in dependence on the accumulation of time reckoned as day-and-night periods and so forth - thus, what is designated in dependence on this or that is called time. But this should be understood as being merely a designation, since it does not exist as an intrinsic reality. And the aggregate of mental states such as contact, feeling and so on is what is explained here as a collection. Having thus understood time and collection as well, regarding the remaining one -

For here, condition itself is what is called cause; its manifoldness should be understood by way of either doors or conditions. How? For the conditions of eye-consciousness and so on arising at the eye-door and so forth are the eye, visible form, light, attention and so on; and in the Great Treatise, twenty-four conditions are stated by the method of "root condition, object condition" and so on. Among those, setting aside the result condition and the post-nascence condition, the remaining ones are indeed conditions of wholesome mental states. All of those are intended here as causes. Thus its manifoldness should be understood by way of either doors or conditions. Thus these five meanings beginning with concurrence should be understood as being encompassed here by the word 'occasion'.

'But why was the encompassing of all of them made without taking just any one among them?' 'Because of the elucidation of this or that particular meaning by this or that one. For among these, the occasion reckoned as concurrence elucidates the occurrence from multiple causes. Thereby the doctrine of a single cause is refuted. And concurrence is by nature mutually dependent in producing a common result. Therefore it also elucidates this meaning: "there is no single creator." For when a cause exists by its own nature, the dependence on another cause would be unjustified. Thus, by elucidating the non-existence of any single cause, the view that "happiness and suffering are self-made" and so on is refuted.

Therein one might ask - "What was stated - that it illustrates the occurrence from multiple causes - that is not valid." "For what reason?" "Because those that are not causes when not in combination would also arrive at the state of being non-causes even when in combination." "For when one blind person is unable to see, a hundred blind persons do not see either." "No, it is not invalid; for combination is the state of being established through the capacity to produce a common result; it is not merely the bringing together of many things. And seeing is not a common result of blind persons." "Why?" "Because even when there are a hundred blind persons, that is absent. But for the eye and so forth, that is a common result, because of its existence when they exist. And the state of being a cause when in combination is established even for those that are non-causes when not in combination. This should be understood through the absence of the result when not in combination, and through its existence when in combination. For the non-existence of eye-consciousness and so forth when the eye and so forth are deficient, and their existence when not deficient, is directly evident to the world." This, then, is the meaning illustrated by the occasion reckoned as combination.

Now, the ninth moment, which is free from the eight inopportune moments, and the moment spoken of in the sense of opportunity, reckoned as the four wheels beginning with dwelling in a suitable place - that does not exist without the conjunction of moments such as human existence, the arising of a Buddha, the persistence of the true Dhamma, and so forth. And the rarity of human existence and so forth is shown by the simile of the blind turtle and the like. Thus, because of the rarity of the moment, the wholesome that is dependent on the moment and beneficial for supramundane states is all the more rare indeed. Thus among these, the occasion reckoned as moment illustrates the rarity of the arising of the wholesome. By illustrating thus, the heedless dwelling of those who, having attained the moment, make it a fruitless moment by not practising that wholesome which is dependent on the moment, is rejected. This is the meaning illustrated by the occasion reckoned as moment.

Now, the time of occurrence of this wholesome consciousness is extremely brief. And its extreme brevity should be understood by means of the commentary on this sutta: "Just as, monks, is the speed of that man, and just as is the speed of the moon and sun, and just as is the speed of those deities who run before the moon and sun, more swiftly than that do the life-formations become exhausted" - it should be understood by means of the commentary on this sutta. For therein, the brief duration of the material life faculty was first stated. For as long as present matter persists, sixteen consciousnesses arise and perish. Thus, for their brevity of duration, there is not even a simile. Therefore he said - "So much so, monks, that even a simile is not easy to find for how swiftly consciousness changes." Thus among these, the occasion reckoned as time illustrates the extreme brevity of the time of occurrence of wholesome consciousness. By illustrating thus, because of the extreme brevity of time, this consciousness is difficult to penetrate, like pearls by a flash of lightning; therefore the instruction is given that great effort and care should be made for its penetration. This is the meaning illustrated by the occasion reckoned as time.

The occasion reckoned as a group, however, indicates the co-arising of many things. For the collection of mental states such as contact and so on is called a group. And consciousness arising at that occasion arises together with those mental states - thus the co-arising of many things is indicated. By indicating thus, the arising of a single mental state alone is rejected. This is the meaning indicated by the occasion reckoned as a group.

The occasion reckoned as a cause, however, indicates dependence on others for occurrence. For since the meaning of the phrase "at whatever occasion" is "when this cause is present, it has arisen," therefore dependence on others for occurrence is indicated by "when the cause is present." By indicating thus, the conceit that mental states occur under their own control is rejected. This is the meaning indicated by the occasion reckoned as a cause.

Therein, "at whatever occasion" means "at whatever time" according to the occasion reckoned as time; "in whatever group" according to the occasion reckoned as a group. According to the occasions reckoned as moment, concurrence, and cause, the meaning to be understood is: "when that moment is present, when that concurrence is present, when that cause is present, wholesome consciousness of the sensual sphere has arisen, and when just that is present, contact and so on are also present." For the occasion reckoned as time and the occasion reckoned as a group are a locus. The locative case here is used in the sense of a locus with respect to the mental states stated therein. And the locative case here is used in the sense of the characteristic of existence-by-existence, meaning that by the existence of the occasion reckoned as moment, concurrence, and cause, the existence of those mental states is ascertained.

"Of the sensual sphere" - "What mental states are of the sensual sphere? Making the lowest boundary the Avīci hell and the upper boundary the Paranimmitavasavattī realm" - it is included among the sensual-sphere mental states stated by this method etc. Herein this is the meaning of the word - In summary, there are two kinds of sensual desire - object-desire and defilement-desire. Therein, defilement-desire is in meaning just desire-and-lust, while object-desire is the round of the three planes. Herein, defilement-desire is called "desire" because it desires; the other, however, is called "desire" because it is desired. The region where this twofold desire roams by way of occurrence - that region is elevenfold by way of the four lower realms, the human realm, and the six heavenly realms. "Desire roams here" - thus it is "sensual-sphere," like "armed-men-sphere." Just as the region where armed men roam is called "armed-men-sphere" even though other bipeds and quadrupeds also roam there, because of the predominance of those armed men, so too even though other things such as fine-material-sphere states also roam there, because of the predominance of those sensual desires, this region is called "sensual-sphere." Just as the fine-material existence is called simply "form" by elision of the latter word, so too this is called simply "sensual" by elision of the latter word. Thus this consciousness roams in the sensual realm reckoned as these eleven regions - therefore it is "of the sensual sphere."

Although indeed this consciousness also roams in the fine-material and immaterial existences, just as an elephant that has obtained the name "battle-roamer" because of roaming in battle is still called "battle-roamer" even when roaming in the city, and just as land-roaming and water-roaming creatures are still called "land-roamers" and "water-roamers" even when standing on dry land or out of water, so too this should be understood as being of the sensual sphere even when roaming elsewhere. Or alternatively, "of the sensual sphere" because sensual desire roams here by way of making it an object. And although this sensual desire also roams in the fine-material and immaterial spheres, just as when it is said "one who speaks" is a "calf" and "one who lies on the ground" is a "buffalo," not all beings that speak or all that lie on the ground receive that name, so too should this be understood in the same way. Furthermore, "of the sensual sphere" because it causes rebirth-linking to roam in the sensual realm reckoned as sensual existence.

Wholesome (kusala): it is wholesome in the sense of shaking off (salana) and so forth of what is contemptible (kucchita). Furthermore, it is wholesome in the sense of health, in the sense of blamelessness, and in the sense of being born of skill. Just as in the expression "I trust your honour is well (kusala)," wholesome is stated in the sense of health through freedom from affliction, freedom from sickness, and freedom from disease in the material body, so too in immaterial mental states, wholesome should be understood in the sense of health through the absence of affliction by defilements, of the sickness of defilements, and of the disease of defilements. Through the absence of the fault of defilements, the defect of defilements, and the distress of defilements, it is wholesome in the sense of blamelessness. Skill (kosalla) is a term for wisdom; because it is born of skill, it is wholesome in the sense of being born of skill.

Let it be so for that "associated with knowledge"; but how about that dissociated from knowledge? That too is wholesome by conventional usage. Just as a fan made not from palm leaves but from reed mats and so forth is still called a "palm-leaf fan" (tālavaṇṭa) by conventional usage because of its resemblance to one, so too that which is "dissociated from knowledge" should be understood as wholesome by conventional usage. In the strict sense, however, that "associated with knowledge" receives the designation wholesome in all three senses - in the sense of health, in the sense of blamelessness, and in the sense of being born of skill - while that dissociated from knowledge receives it in only two senses. Thus whatever is spoken of as wholesome by the method of the Jātakas, by the method of the Bāhitika Sutta, and by the method of the Abhidhamma - all of that is found in this consciousness in all three senses.

This wholesome consciousness, in terms of its characteristic and so forth, has the characteristic of being blameless with pleasant result, the function of destroying the unwholesome, the manifestation of purity, and the proximate cause of wise attention. Or, because it is the opposite of what is blameworthy, the wholesome has only the characteristic of blamelessness, the function of purification, the manifestation of desirable result, and the same proximate cause as stated above. For among the characteristic and so forth, the intrinsic nature or the common nature of those various mental states is called the characteristic. The function or the achievement is called the function (rasa). The mode of appearance or the fruit is called the manifestation. The proximate cause is called the proximate cause (padaṭṭhāna). Thus wherever we shall speak of the characteristic and so forth, their diversity should be understood in just this way.

Consciousness (citta): it cognises the object, thus it is consciousness; the meaning is: it knows. Or because the word "citta" is common to all types of consciousness, therefore whatever mundane wholesome, unwholesome, or functional consciousness there is here, that accumulates its own continuity by way of the javana process, thus it is consciousness (citta). Resultant consciousness is variegated (cita) by kamma and defilements, thus it is consciousness (citta). Furthermore, all consciousness is consciousness (citta) because of its variegated nature in accordance with its respective type. The meaning here should be understood as: it is consciousness because of its making variegated. Therein, because consciousness with lust is one thing, consciousness with hate is another, consciousness with delusion is another; consciousness of the sensual sphere is one thing, consciousness of the fine-material sphere and so forth is another; consciousness with a visual object is one thing, consciousness with a sound and other objects is another; and among those with visual objects, consciousness with a blue object is one thing, consciousness with a yellow object and so forth is another; the same method applies among those with sound and other objects; and among all of these, one is inferior, another is middling, another is superior; and among the inferior and so forth, one has desire as predominant, another has energy as predominant, another has consciousness as predominant, another has investigation as predominant - therefore its variegated nature should be understood by way of these associated states, planes, objects, inferior, middling, superior, and predominant factors. Of course, no single consciousness is variegated in this way, but because it is included among consciousnesses, it is fitting to call any one of them consciousness because of its variegated nature. Thus, firstly, it is consciousness because of its variegated nature.

How is it consciousness by way of making variegated? For in the world there is no other variegated work that surpasses the variegated work of consciousness. Even in that, the painting called 'citta' is exceedingly variegated indeed. For those who make it, the painters, the perception of the design arises thus: 'Such and such figures should be made here.' Through that perception of the design, the painting activities that produce sketching, colouring, brightening, shading, and so forth arise; then in the painting called 'citta', one or another variegated figure is produced. Then, having thought 'Above this figure let this be, below let this be, on both sides let this be,' the production of the remaining variegated figures occurs in the order as thought. Thus whatever variegated craft-work there is in the world, all that is made by consciousness alone. Thus, by this variegation of making, the consciousness that produces each of those variegated works is likewise variegated. Or because whatever is thought cannot be produced without remainder, consciousness is even more variegated than that. Therefore the Blessed One said -

"Have you seen, monks, a painting called 'citta'? "Yes, venerable sir." That painting called 'citta', monks, is designed by consciousness itself. By that painting called 'citta', monks, consciousness itself is even more variegated."

Likewise, that which is the internal variegation - differentiated by kamma, bodily form, perception, designation, and so forth - in the destinies divided into devas, humans, hell-beings, and animals, that too is made by consciousness alone. For the diversity of kamma - wholesome and unwholesome kamma produced by consciousness, proceeding by way of giving, virtue, cruelty, fraud, and so forth - is the diversity of kamma. And through the diversity of kamma alone, in those various destinies, there is the diversity of bodily form, differentiated by the configuration of hands, feet, ears, belly, neck, face, and so forth. From the diversity of bodily form, according to the configuration apprehended, there is the diversity of perception through the perception arising as 'this is a woman, this is a man.' From the diversity of perception, in accordance with perception, there is the diversity of designation for those who designate as 'woman' or 'man.' And by means of the diversity of designation, since kamma that generates this or that individual existence is performed thus: 'I shall be a woman, I shall be a man, I shall be a noble warrior, I shall be a brahmin,' therefore from the diversity of designation there is the diversity of kamma. And that diversity of kamma, producing existence as wished for, since it produces by way of destiny, therefore from the diversity of kamma there is the diversity of destiny. And through the diversity of kamma alone, for those various beings, in this or that destiny, the state of being footless, two-footed, and so forth is discerned; in this or that rebirth, the state of being high, low, and so forth; in this or that individual existence, the state of being fair-complexioned, ugly, and so forth; and in worldly conditions, the state of gain, loss, and so forth. Therefore all this internal variegation - differentiated by kamma, bodily form, perception, designation, and so forth - in the destinies divided into devas, humans, hell-beings, and animals, should be understood as made by consciousness alone. This meaning should be understood by means of this sutta that has not been included in the collections. For this was said:

"By means of the determination of the diversity, multiplicity, and classification of kamma, there comes to be the determination of the diversity, multiplicity, and classification of bodily form; by means of the determination of the diversity, multiplicity, and classification of bodily form, there comes to be the determination of the diversity, multiplicity, and classification of perception; by means of the determination of the diversity, multiplicity, and classification of perception, there comes to be the determination of the diversity, multiplicity, and classification of designation; by means of the determination of the diversity, multiplicity, and classification of designation, there comes to be the determination of the diversity, multiplicity, and classification of kamma. Dependent on the diversity of kamma, diversity in the destiny of beings is discerned - footless, two-footed, four-footed, many-footed, material, immaterial, percipient, non-percipient, neither-percipient-nor-non-percipient. Dependent on the diversity of kamma, diversity in the rebirth of beings is discerned - the state of being high and low, inferior and superior, well-faring and ill-faring. Dependent on the diversity of kamma, diversity in the individual existence of beings is discerned - the state of being fair-complexioned and ugly, well-born and ill-born, well-formed and ill-formed. Dependent on the diversity of kamma, diversity in the worldly conditions of beings is discerned - gain and loss, fame and disrepute, blame and praise, happiness and suffering."

Furthermore it was said -

"Beings, young man, are owners of their actions, heirs of their actions, born of their actions, bound to their actions, have their actions as their refuge; it is action that divides beings, that is to say, into inferior and superior."

Thus, the variegated nature of consciousness should be understood through this variegated nature of making as well. For all these variegated things are made by consciousness alone. However, since consciousness that has not obtained opportunity, or that is deficient in the remaining conditions, does not produce some of the variegated things, that internal picture which is said to be made by consciousness - even more variegated than that is consciousness itself. Therefore the Blessed One said -

"Monks, I do not see any other single group so variegated as this - namely, monks, the animal kingdom... Even more variegated than those animals, monks, is consciousness itself."

Regarding "has arisen" - here, "arisen" is of many kinds, by way of the present, the departed, the opportunity-made, and the ground-obtained. Therein, whatever is endowed with arising, ageing, and dissolution is called "arisen as present." That which, having experienced the taste of the object, has ceased - the wholesome and unwholesome designated as "departed from experience" - and that which has ceased without reaching the triad of arising and so forth - designated as "departed from existence" - and the remaining conditioned things, are called "arisen as departed from existence." Action spoken of in such manner as "whatever actions were formerly done by him," though past, because it stands having warded off other results and having made opportunity for its own result, and likewise the result for which opportunity has been made, though not yet arisen, because it certainly arises when such opportunity has been made - this is called "arisen as opportunity-made." Unwholesome that is not uprooted on those various planes is called arisen as obtained-by-ground. And here the diversity of the ground and of what is obtained-by-ground should be understood. "Ground" means the five aggregates of the three planes that are the object of insight. "Ground-obtained" means the defilements capable of arising in those aggregates. For through that, this ground is said to be obtained; therefore it is called "ground-obtained." Among these four kinds of arisen, here "arisen as present" is intended.

Herein this is the meaning of the word - That which, from the past end onwards, has proceeded towards arising and so forth, is "arisen." The word "arisen," however, is seen in many senses: as past, as obtained, as originated, as unsuppressed, as uncut off, and as having reached the three moments. For this word, in "At that time, monks, the Blessed One Kakusandha, the Arahant, the Fully Enlightened One, had arisen in the world," has come in the sense of past. In "An extra robe has arisen for the Venerable Ānanda," it has come in the sense of obtained. In "Just as, monks, a great rain cloud that has arisen - a great wind disperses it right there," it has come in the sense of originated. "The intention to go that has arisen is difficult to dispel; it dispels on the spot each evil unwholesome state that has arisen" - here it has come in the sense of unsuppressed. "Developing and cultivating the Noble Eightfold Path, one dispels on the spot each evil unwholesome state that has arisen" - here it has come in the sense of uncut off. "Is what is arising to be called 'arisen'? Yes" - here it has come in the sense of having reached the three moments. And here too it should be seen as having reached the three moments. Therefore, in "has arisen," it means: it has reached the three moments, it is present, it is occurring now. This is the meaning in brief.

"Consciousness has arisen" - this is merely the heading of the teaching. However, consciousness does not arise alone by itself. Therefore, just as when it is said "the king has arrived," it is understood that he did not arrive alone leaving his retinue behind, but rather arrived together with the royal retinue, so too this should be understood as having arisen together with more than fifty wholesome mental states. However, it is stated as "consciousness has arisen" in the sense of being the forerunner.

For with regard to mundane states, consciousness is the chief, consciousness is the leader, consciousness is the forerunner. With regard to supramundane states, wisdom is the chief, wisdom is the leader, wisdom is the forerunner. Therefore, the Blessed One, when asking a question with regard to the Vinaya method, without asking "what is your contact, what is your feeling, what is your perception, what is your volition," asks "what is your consciousness, monk?" making consciousness itself the leader. And when it is said "my consciousness was without intention to steal, Blessed One," without saying "there is no offence for one without intention to steal in respect of contact" and so forth, he says "there is no offence, monk, for one without intention to steal."

And not only with regard to the Vinaya method, but when teaching any other mundane teaching too, he teaches making consciousness itself the leader. As he said - "Whatever mental states, monks, are unwholesome, partaking of the unwholesome, belonging to the unwholesome side, all these have mind as their forerunner. Mind arises first among those mental states."

"Through the defilement of mind, monks, beings are defiled; through the purification of mind they are purified."

"This mind, monks, is luminous, but it is defiled by adventitious defilements."

"When the mind is unguarded, householder, bodily action too is unguarded, verbal action too is unguarded, mental action too is unguarded; when the mind is guarded, householder, etc. when the mind is corrupted, householder, etc. when the mind is uncorrupted, householder, etc. when the mind is tainted, householder, etc. when the mind is untainted, householder, bodily action too is untainted, verbal action too is untainted, mental action too is untainted."

Thus it should be understood that with regard to mundane states, consciousness is the chief, consciousness is the leader, consciousness is the forerunner. It should be understood that among these suttas, rather than taking just one or two, all of them have been taken for the purpose of safeguarding the suttas.

However, when asking about supramundane states, without asking 'which contact have you attained, which feeling, which perception, which volition, which consciousness,' he asks 'which wisdom have you, monk, attained,' 'was it first path-wisdom, or second, etc. third, etc. fourth path-wisdom that you attained,' thus making wisdom the chief and wisdom the leader, he asks. All wholesome states with wisdom as the highest do not decline. But what is the purpose of wisdom? "For a noble disciple who has wisdom, monks, faith that follows accordingly becomes established, energy that follows accordingly becomes established, mindfulness that follows accordingly becomes established, concentration that follows accordingly becomes established" - such suttas and others should be considered here. Thus it should be understood that, with regard to supramundane states, wisdom is the chief, wisdom is the leader, wisdom is the forerunner. This, however, is a mundane teaching. Therefore, making consciousness the leader in his teaching, he said "consciousness has arisen."

"Accompanied by pleasure" means having gone to the state of co-arising and so forth together with pleasure, which is reckoned as agreeable and sweet feeling. Now this word "accompanied" is seen in these meanings: identity, intermixture, support, object, and association. Therein, "this craving which produces renewed existence, accompanied by delight and lust" should be understood in the sense of identity; the meaning is "being of the nature of delight and lust." "That investigation, monks, which is accompanied by laziness, associated with laziness" should be understood in the sense of intermixture; the meaning here is "interspersed with laziness arising from time to time." "He develops the mindfulness enlightenment factor accompanied by the perception of a skeleton" should be understood in the sense of support; the meaning is "obtained by relying on the perception of a skeleton and having developed the perception of a skeleton." "He is one who attains either attainments accompanied by form or those accompanied by the formless" - in the sense of object; the meaning should be understood as "having form and formless objects." "This happiness is accompanied by this joy, co-arisen, associated, conjoined" - in the sense of association. In this word too, this very meaning is intended. For here "associated with pleasure" is stated as "accompanied by pleasure."

The word "associated" too is seen in many meanings: similar, corrupted, friendly intimacy, and co-arisen. For this word, in "having excluded the thin and the fat, matched and yoked horses," has come in the sense of similar. In "you, ladies, dwell in an associated manner" - in the sense of corrupted. In "a householder dwells in association" - in the sense of friendly intimacy. In "this happiness is accompanied by this joy, co-arisen, associated, conjoined" - in the sense of co-arisen. Here too, the sense of co-arisen is intended. Therein, what is "accompanied" is never not co-arisen, not associated, not conjoined. But what is co-arisen may or may not be associated and conjoined. For among material and immaterial states that have arisen together, material is co-arisen with immaterial, but not associated, not conjoined; likewise immaterial with material; and material with material; but immaterial with immaterial is invariably accompanied, co-arisen, associated, and conjoined. Referring to that, it is said "accompanied by pleasure."

"Associated with knowledge" means associated with knowledge, meaning joined together equally by way of arising together and so on. Whatever should be said here, that is just as stated in the method given in the analysis of the feeling triad in the Mātikā commentary. Therefore, it should be understood as "associated" by this characteristic: of single arising, single cessation, single base, and single object. And this is a statement of the highest degree. In the immaterial realm, however, association is obtained even without having a single base.

By this much, what has been spoken of? Among the sensual-sphere wholesome states, the great consciousness that is accompanied by pleasure, with three roots, associated with knowledge, and unprompted has been stated. For by the unspecified question "What mental states are wholesome?" wholesome states of all four planes have been taken. But by the statement "wholesome consciousness of the sensual sphere has arisen," setting aside the wholesome of the three planes, only the eightfold sensual-sphere wholesome has been taken. By the statement "accompanied by pleasure," setting aside from those the fourfold accompanied by equanimity, only the fourfold accompanied by pleasure has been taken. By the statement "associated with knowledge," setting aside from those the twofold dissociated from knowledge, only the two associated with knowledge have been taken. The unprompted nature, however, was not taken simply because it was not stated. Although it was not taken, yet because of the statement "with prompting" later on, even though "without prompting" is not stated here, the unprompted nature should be understood. It should be understood that the conclusion here is that the Perfectly Enlightened One, having determined to analyse and show this great consciousness from the very beginning, commenced this teaching having specified it thus.

Now, to show that same consciousness by way of its object, he said "having a visual object" and so on. For the Blessed One, when showing immaterial mental states, shows them either by base, or by object, or by base and object, or by their own nature. "Eye-contact... etc. mind-contact; feeling born of eye-contact, etc. feeling born of mind-contact; Eye-consciousness... etc. mind-consciousness" - in such passages, immaterial mental states are shown by base. "Perception of material form... etc. perception of mental objects, volition regarding form etc. volition regarding mental objects" - in such passages, by object. "Dependent on the eye and forms, eye-consciousness arises; the meeting of the three is contact etc. Dependent on the mind and mental objects, mind-consciousness arises; the meeting of the three is contact" - in such passages, by base and object. "Bhikkhus, with ignorance as condition, formations arise; with formations as condition, consciousness arises" - in such passages, immaterial mental states are shown by their own nature. In this place, however, showing by object, he said "having a visual object" and so on.

Therein, form of fourfold origination, past, future, and present, is itself the visual object. Sound of twofold origination, past, future, and present, is itself the sound object. Odour of fourfold origination, past, future, and present, is itself the odour object. Flavour of fourfold origination, past, future, and present, is itself the flavour object. The tangible of fourfold origination, past, future, and present, is itself the tangible object. Those of single origination, twofold origination, threefold origination, fourfold origination, and of no origination whatsoever, past, future, and present - consciousness and mental factors, and likewise those that cannot be so designated, and the remainder reckoned as the domain of consciousness - mental states alone are the mental object. Those, however, who say that even forms and so on that have not come into range are simply mental objects should be rejected by this sutta. For this was said:

"Friends, the mind is the resort of these five faculties which have different domains and different ranges and do not experience one another's domain and range; the mind experiences their domain and range."

For these, visual objects and so forth are what is called the domain and range. Even when those are being experienced by the mind, they are still just visual objects and so forth - this meaning is established. And because the divine eye knowledge and so forth also have visual objects and the like as their objects, this meaning is likewise established. For it is precisely visual objects and so forth that have not come into range that are the objects of the divine eye and so forth, and they do not become mental objects - thus the determination of objects should be understood in the very manner stated.

Therein, each individual object comes into range in two doors each. For a visual object, having struck the eye-sensitivity, at that very moment comes into range at the mind-door; the meaning is that it becomes a condition for the vibration of the life-continuum. The same method applies also for sound, odour, flavour, and tangible objects. Just as a bird, having come through the sky, while alighting on a treetop, strikes the branch of the tree, and its shadow falls upon the ground - the striking of the branch and the spreading of the shadow occur neither before nor after but at one and the same moment - so too the striking of the eye-sensitivity and so forth by present visible objects and the like, and the coming into range at the mind-door through the capacity of the life-continuum vibration, occur neither before nor after but at one and the same moment. Then, having interrupted the life-continuum, immediately after the adverting and so forth that have arisen at the eye-door and so forth, ending with the determining, this great consciousness arises in one of those objects.

But at the bare mind-door there is no function of striking the sensitivity. These objects come into range merely by way of what has been ordinarily seen, heard, smelt, tasted, and touched. How? Here someone, having circumambulated a great shrine that has been plastered, variegated with colours of yellow orpiment, red arsenic and the like, with various flags and banners raised, festooned with garlands and strings of flowers, surrounded by rows of lamps, shining with exceedingly delightful splendour, decorated and prepared - having paid homage at the sixteen footrests with the fivefold prostration, raising his hands in añjali and looking up, stands having taken hold of joy with the Buddha as object. For him, having thus seen the shrine and generated joy with the Buddha as object, at a later time, wherever he has gone, while sitting in his night-quarters or day-quarters and adverting, the decorated and prepared great shrine appears just as if it had come into range at the eye-door; it is as if it were the time of circumambulating and paying homage to the shrine. Thus, firstly, by way of what has been seen, a visual object comes into range.

But having heard the sound of a Dhamma-speaker teaching the Dhamma with a sweet voice, or of a chanter chanting melodiously, at a later time, while sitting somewhere and adverting, the Dhamma-talk or the melodious chanting appears as if it had come into range at the ear-door; it is as if it were the time of giving applause and listening. Thus, by way of what has been heard, a sound object comes into range.

But having obtained a fragrant scent or a garland and having made an offering with a mind directed to the odour object at a seat or at a shrine, at a later time, while sitting somewhere and adverting, that odour object appears as if it had come into range at the nose-door; it is as if it were the time of making the offering. Thus, by way of what has been smelt, an odour object comes into range.

But having shared and partaken of choice hard food or soft food together with fellow practitioners in the holy life, at a later time, having obtained somewhere coarse food such as millet and the like, while adverting thus: "At such a time choice food was shared and partaken of together with fellow practitioners in the holy life," that flavour object appears as if it had come into range at the tongue-door; it is as if it were the time of partaking. Thus, by way of what has been tasted, a flavour object comes into range.

But having enjoyed a soft, pleasant-to-touch bed or chair or bedding and coverings, at a later time, having arranged an uncomfortable sleeping place somewhere, while adverting thus: "At such a time I enjoyed a soft bed, chair, bedding and coverings," that tangible object appears as if it had come into range at the body-door. It is as if it were the time of experiencing a pleasant touch. Thus, by way of what has been touched, a tangible object comes into range. Thus, at the bare mind-door there is no function of striking the sensitivity. It should be understood that these objects come into range merely by way of what has been ordinarily seen, heard, smelt, tasted, and touched.

Now, regarding the coming into range by way of what has been ordinarily seen and so forth, there is also this further method independent of the commentary. What has been seen, what has been heard, and what is connected with both - these should first be understood as the seen and so forth. Therein, "what has been seen" means what has been previously apprehended by way of the five doors. "What has been heard" means visible objects and the like that have been apprehended by way of report without having been directly seen. What is connected with both of those is called "what is connected with both." Thus it should be understood that by way of these - what has been seen and so forth - these objects come into range at the mind-door. Therein, the coming into range by way of what has been seen has already been stated above in five ways.

But someone else hears: "The form produced by the surpassing merit of the Blessed One is of such a kind, the sound is exceedingly sweet, in a certain place the fragrance of certain flowers is exceedingly delightful, the flavour of certain fruits is exceedingly sweet, the touch of certain cloaks and the like is exceedingly pleasant." For him, without any impingement upon the eye-sensitivity and so on, those objects come into range at the mind-door merely through what has been heard. Then his consciousness occurs regarding that form or sound through confidence, regarding odours and the like through the desire to give to the noble ones, or through rejoicing in what has been given by others. Thus, through what has been heard, these objects come into range at the mind-door.

Furthermore, the aforesaid forms and so on are either seen or heard. For him, by such a method as "Such a form will also belong to a Buddha arising in the future," without any impingement upon the eye-sensitivity and so on, those objects come into range at the mind-door through the connection of what has been seen and heard alone. Then, in the same manner as stated above, this great consciousness occurs with one of those objects as its object. Thus, through the connection of both, these objects come into range at the mind-door.

This too is merely an outline. But through faith, inclination, inferential reasoning, reflective acceptance of views, and so on, the coming into range of these objects at the mind-door should be understood in detail. Since, however, what thus comes into range may be real or unreal, this method was not adopted in the commentary. Thus it should be understood that impulsion with each single object arises in two doors each. For impulsion with a visual object arises both at the eye-door and at the mind-door. The same method applies to sound and other objects as well.

Therein, impulsion with a visual object arising at the mind-door is threefold: based on giving, based on virtue, and based on mental development. Among these, each is itself threefold: bodily action, verbal action, and mental action. The same method applies to sound, odour, flavour, tangible, and mental objects as well.

Therein, this great wholesome consciousness, arising with form as its object, arises having taken as object a desirable, lovely, agreeable, attractive colour among the blue, yellow, red, and white colours in flowers, cloths, and mineral substances, which is reckoned as a sign of beauty. But is not this desirable object the basis for greed? How has this consciousness become wholesome? Through determination, through transformation, through habitual practice, and through wise attention. For one whose consciousness has been determined towards wholesome action by thinking "Only what is wholesome should be done by me," transformed towards wholesome action alone by turning away from the occurrence of the unwholesome, practised through frequent performance with wholesome conduct alone, and whose wise attention operates through such supporting conditions as dwelling in a suitable place, association with good persons, hearing the true Dhamma, and previously accumulated merit - for him, through this determination, transformation, habitual practice, and wise attention, it has become wholesome.

Here, however, the state of being accompanied by pleasure should be understood in terms of the object. For this has become accompanied by pleasure because it has arisen regarding a desirable object. Here, abundance of faith and the like are indeed the causes. For those without faith and those with wrong view, even upon seeing the form of the Tathāgata, which is an exclusively desirable object, pleasure does not arise. And for those who do not see the benefit in the occurrence of the wholesome, even when performing wholesome deeds after being encouraged by others, pleasure does not arise. Therefore, abundance of faith, purity of view, and seeing the benefits are the causes. Thus, the state of being accompanied by pleasure should be understood here. Moreover, eleven states conduce to the arising of the joy enlightenment factor: recollection of the Buddha, recollection of the Dhamma, recollection of the Saṅgha, recollection of virtue, recollection of generosity, recollection of deities, recollection of peace, avoidance of rough persons, association with gentle persons, reflection on inspiring discourses, and inclination towards that. Through these causes too, the state of being accompanied by pleasure should be understood here. The detailed explanation of these will become evident in the Analysis of the Enlightenment Factors.

The association with knowledge should be understood by these reasons: by kamma, by rebirth, by maturity of faculties, and by the distancing of defilements. For one who teaches the Dhamma to others, who trains them in blameless crafts, occupations, and fields of knowledge, who honours a Dhamma preacher and has the Dhamma taught, who establishes the aspiration "I shall be wise in the future" and gives various kinds of gifts - depending on such kamma, the wholesome that arises, arises associated with knowledge. Or even for one born in a world free from ill-will, "for him, being happy there, mental states become manifest... the arising of mindfulness is slow, monks, but that being quickly attains distinction" - in this way, depending on rebirth too, the wholesome that arises, arises associated with knowledge. Likewise, for those who have reached the maturity of faculties, who have attained the decad of wisdom, depending on the maturity of faculties too, the wholesome that arises, arises associated with knowledge. For those by whom the defilements have been suppressed, depending on the distancing of defilements too, the wholesome that arises, arises associated with knowledge. And this too was said -

"From application indeed wisdom arises, from non-application the destruction of wisdom."

Thus the association with knowledge should be understood by these reasons: by kamma, by rebirth, by maturity of faculties, and by the distancing of defilements.

Furthermore, seven states conduce to the arising of the investigation-of-states enlightenment factor: questioning, making the basis clear, balancing the faculties, avoidance of persons lacking in wisdom, association with persons possessed of wisdom, reviewing of the range of profound knowledge, and inclination towards that. By these reasons too, the association with knowledge should be understood. The detailed explanation of these will become evident in the Analysis of the Enlightenment Factors.

Having thus arisen associated with knowledge, this has arisen as unprompted because it arose spontaneously, without effort, without deliberation of means. This, arising with an alluring visible object as its object, arises by a threefold determination: it is either based on giving, or based on virtue, or based on mental development.

How? When, having obtained one among blue, yellow, red, or white flowers and so forth, and having directed attention by way of colour, one makes an offering to the Buddha-jewel and so forth thinking "this is my gift of colour," then it is based on giving. Herein is this story - The treasurer Saṅghamitta, it is said, having obtained a cloth studded with gold, thought: "This cloth too is golden-coloured, the Perfectly Enlightened One too is golden-coloured, a golden-coloured cloth is fitting only for one of golden colour, and this will be our gift of colour" - and placed it upon the Great Shrine. At such a time, it should be understood as based on giving. But when, having obtained just such a gift-worthy thing, one makes an offering to the Buddha-jewel and so forth thinking "this is my family tradition, this is the family custom, this is the family lineage, this is the family practice," then it is based on virtue. But when, having made an offering to the Triple Gem with just such a thing, one establishes the contemplation of decay and dissolution thinking "this colour will come to destruction, will come to dissolution," then it is based on mental development.

Even when proceeding as based on giving, when it occurs as one makes an offering to the Three Jewels with one's own hands, then it is bodily action. When one making an offering to the Three Jewels commands sons, wives, slaves, workers, servants, and others to make the offering, then it is verbal action. When one thinks "I shall give a gift of colour" with reference to that very existing thing of the aforesaid kind, then it is mental action. For according to the Vinaya method, giving is so called by this characteristic: that the utterance "I shall give, I shall do" has been made. But according to the Abhidhamma method, from the time one mentally thinks "I shall give" with reference to an existing thing, it is wholesome. It is said that what is to be done later by body or by speech, one will do. Thus, based on giving is threefold by way of bodily, verbal, and mental action alone.

When, however, having obtained such an aforementioned object, one venerates the Triple Gem with one's own hands by way of family lineage and so forth, then it is moral conduct-based bodily action. When one commands one's sons, wife and others to make offerings by way of family lineage and so forth, then it is verbal action. When one thinks "This is my family lineage, this is the family tradition, this is the family custom, this is the family practice" and, with reference to an existing object, thinks "I shall give a gift of colour," then it is mental action. Thus the moral conduct-based is threefold by way of bodily, verbal and mental action.

When, however, having obtained such an aforementioned object and having venerated the Three Jewels, one while walking back and forth sets up the contemplation of decay and dissolution, then it is meditation-based bodily action. For one who sets up contemplation by speech, it is verbal action; for one who, without moving the bodily or vocal faculties, sets up contemplation by mind alone, it is mental action. Thus the meditation-based is threefold by way of bodily, verbal and mental action. Thus the King of the Dhamma showed this wholesome state with a visual object, analysing it by the nine action-doors according to the three bases of meritorious activity. The same method applies also to sound as object and so forth.

For, having taken a pleasing sound among drum sounds and so forth as object, this wholesome state arises by the three determinations in the same way as stated above. Therein, a sound cannot be uprooted like a root-bulb and placed in the hand like a blue lotus spray to be given; but by making it accompanied by a material basis, one who gives it gives a gift of sound. Therefore, when thinking "I shall give a gift of sound," one makes an offering to the Three Jewels with one or another musical instrument such as drums and tabors, when thinking "This is my gift of sound" one has drums and so forth placed, when one gives throat remedies, oil, molasses and so forth to Dhamma-preaching monks, when one announces the hearing of the Dhamma, when one chants in melodious recitation, when one gives a Dhamma talk, when one gives a discourse to those seated nearby or a discourse of appreciation, then it is gift-based indeed. When one performs this very same arrangement by way of family lineage and so forth as a regular practice, then it is moral conduct-based. When, having done all this, one sets up the contemplation that "This sound, however great, even of the extent of the Brahma world, will come to decay, will come to dissolution," then it is meditation-based.

Therein, as regards the gift-based, when one takes drums and so forth and makes an offering with one's own hands, when one placing them for the purpose of regular offering places them with one's own hands, when thinking "This is my gift of sound" one goes to announce the hearing of the Dhamma, when one goes to give a Dhamma talk or to chant in melodious recitation, then it is bodily action. When one commands "Go, dear ones, make an offering of our gift of sound to the Three Jewels," when thinking "This is my gift of sound" one commands "Place this drum, place this tabor in the shrine precincts," when one oneself announces the hearing of the Dhamma, gives a Dhamma talk, chants in melodious recitation, then it is verbal action. When, without moving the bodily or vocal faculties, one mentally relinquishes an existing object thinking "I shall give a gift of sound," then it is mental action.

As for the moral conduct-based too, for one who, thinking "The gift of sound is indeed my family lineage, the family tradition, the family custom," makes an offering with one's own hands using drums and so forth, for one who places drums and so forth with one's own hands in the shrine precincts and elsewhere, for one who gives throat remedies to Dhamma-preaching monks with one's own hands, and for one who goes for the purpose of announcing the hearing of the Dhamma, giving a Dhamma talk, or chanting in melodious recitation as a regular practice, it is bodily action. For one who commands "The gift of sound is indeed our family lineage, the family tradition, the family custom; go, dear ones, make an offering to the Buddha-jewel and so forth," and for one who oneself gives a Dhamma talk or chants in melodious recitation by way of family lineage, it is verbal action. For one who, thinking "The gift of sound is indeed my family lineage; I shall give a gift of sound," without moving the bodily or vocal faculties, relinquishes an existing object by mind alone, it is mental action.

As for the meditation-based too, when one while walking back and forth sets up the contemplation of decay and dissolution regarding sounds, then it is bodily action. But for one who, without moving the bodily faculties, contemplates by speech, it is verbal action. For one who, without moving the bodily or vocal faculties, contemplates the sound base by mind alone, it is mental action. Thus the King of the Dhamma showed this wholesome state with sound as object too, analysing it by the nine action-doors according to the three bases of meritorious activity.

In the case of root-scents and so forth too, having taken a pleasing scent as object, this wholesome state arises by the three determinations in the same way as stated above. Therein, when having obtained any scent among root-scents and so forth, having directed attention to it by way of scent, one venerates the Buddha-jewel and so forth thinking "This is my gift of scent," then it is gift-based - all this should be understood in detail in the same way as stated for the gift of colour. Thus the King of the Dhamma showed this wholesome state with scent as object too, analysing it by the nine action-doors according to the three bases of meritorious activity.

In the case of root-flavours and so forth, however, having taken a pleasing flavour as object, this wholesome state arises by the three determinations in the same way as stated above. Therein, when having obtained any pleasing flavour-substance among root-flavours and so forth, having directed attention to it by way of flavour, one gives and relinquishes it thinking "This is my gift of flavour," then it is gift-based - all this should be understood in detail in the same way as stated for the gift of colour. In the case of the moral conduct-based here, however, beginning with the story of King Duṭṭhagāmaṇi Abhaya who, thinking "Partaking without having given to the Saṅgha is not our custom," had twelve thousand monks served and then partook of the delicious food, stories have come down in the Great Commentary. This alone is the distinction. Thus the King of the Dhamma showed this wholesome state with flavour as object too, analysing it by the nine action-doors according to the three bases of meritorious activity.

Regarding the tangible object as object too, the earth element, the fire element, and the wind element - these three great essentials are called the tangible object as object. In this context, the application should be made not by way of these elements, but by way of beds, chairs, and so forth. For when one obtains any pleasing tangible object among beds, chairs, and so forth, and having attended to it by way of the tangible, gives and relinquishes it thinking "this is my gift of tangibles," then it is generosity-based - all this should be understood in detail in the same manner as stated regarding the gift of colour. Thus the King of the Dhamma showed that wholesome consciousness with a tangible object as object too is analysed by way of the three bases of meritorious action through nine doors of action.

Regarding the mental object as object, the six internal sense bases, the three characteristics, the three immaterial aggregates, the fifteen kinds of subtle matter, and nibbāna and concepts - these mental states, both included in and not included in the mental-object base, are called the mental object as object. In this context, however, the application should be made not by way of these, but by way of the gift of nutriment, the gift of drink, and the gift of life. For taking a pleasing mental object among nutriment and so forth as object, this wholesome consciousness arises by the three determinations in the same manner as stated above.

Therein, when one gives ghee, butter, and so forth thinking "this is my gift of nutriment," gives the eight kinds of drink as a gift of drink, gives meals by ticket, communal meals, and so forth as a gift of life, gives medicine to ailing monks, has a physician attend to them, has nets destroyed, has worms removed, has bird cages destroyed, has release from bondage arranged, has the drum of non-slaughter circulated, and performs other such deeds for the purpose of protecting life, then it is generosity-based. But when one carries on the giving of nutriment and so forth under the heading of observance, thinking "the gift of nutriment, the gift of drink, and the gift of life are my family tradition, my family custom, my family lineage," then it is virtue-based. When one establishes the contemplation of decay and dissolution regarding the mental object, then it is meditation-based.

Even when proceeding as generosity-based, when one gives the gift of nutriment, the gift of drink, and the gift of life with one's own hands, then it is bodily action. When one has sons, wife, and others commanded and makes them give, then it is verbal action. When, without moving bodily or vocal parts, one thinks in the mind "I shall give" regarding an existing object by way of the gift of nutriment, the gift of drink, and the gift of life, then it is mental action.

But when one gives the aforesaid existing object with one's own hands by way of family tradition and so forth, then it is virtue-based bodily action. When one has sons, wife, and others commanded and makes them give by way of family tradition and so forth, then it is verbal action. When one thinks only in the mind "I shall give" regarding the aforesaid existing object by way of family tradition and so forth, then it is mental action.

For one who, having walked back and forth, establishes the contemplation of decay and dissolution regarding the mental object, it is meditation-based bodily action. For one who, without moving bodily parts, establishes the contemplation of decay and dissolution by speech, it is verbal action. For one who, without moving bodily or vocal parts, establishes the contemplation of decay and dissolution regarding the mental object only by mind, it is mental action. Thus the meditation-based is threefold by way of bodily, verbal and mental action. Thus the King of the Dhamma showed that this wholesome consciousness with a mental object as object too is analysed by way of the three bases of meritorious action through nine doors of action.

Thus this consciousness has been explained by way of various objects regarding various things. But this is obtainable even regarding a single thing by way of various objects. How? For among the four requisites, six objects are obtainable in the case of a robe. For the colour of a new robe is agreeable and pleasing to see - this is the colour object. At the time of use it makes a rustling sound - this is the sound object. Whatever smell of black antimony and so forth is there - this is the odour object. The flavour object, however, is spoken of by way of the pleasure of use. Whatever pleasant tangibility is there - this is the tangible object. The pleasant feeling arisen dependent on the robe is the mental object. In the case of almsfood, the flavour object is obtainable in the literal sense. Thus, having made the application by way of various objects regarding the four requisites, the classification into generosity-based and so forth should be understood.

However, for this consciousness, the object alone is fixed, since it does not arise without an object. But the door is not fixed. Why? Because of the unfixed nature of kamma. For when kamma is unfixed, the door too is unfixed.

Discourse on the Doors of Sense-Sphere Wholesome

Discourse on the Door of Bodily Action

For the purpose of elucidating this matter, the discussion on doors was given in the Great Commentary at this point. Therein, three kammas, three kamma-doors, five consciousnesses, five consciousness-doors, six contacts, six contact-doors, eight non-restraints, eight non-restraint-doors, eight restraints, eight restraint-doors, ten wholesome courses of action, ten unwholesome courses of action - this much constitutes the setting up of the matrix for the discussion on doors.

Therein, although the three kammas were stated first, setting those aside, first the three kamma-doors were analysed and shown. What three? The bodily kamma-door, the verbal kamma-door, and the mental kamma-door.

Therein, the body is fourfold: kamma-born, nutriment-originated, temperature-originated, and consciousness-originated. Therein, the eight kamma-originated material phenomena beginning with the eye base and ending with the life faculty, as well as the eight that are themselves kamma-originated - the four elements, colour, odour, flavour, and nutritive essence - are called the kamma-born body. Those same eight born of nutriment are called the nutriment-originated body. The eight born of temperature are called the temperature-originated body. The eight born of consciousness are called the consciousness-originated body.

Among these, "bodily kamma-door" is neither the name of the kamma-born body nor of the others. But among the eight consciousness-originated material phenomena, there is one intimation - this is called the bodily kamma-door. With reference to which it was said - "What is that material phenomenon that is bodily intimation? That which, of one with wholesome consciousness, or of one with unwholesome consciousness, or of one with indeterminate consciousness, of one stepping forward or stepping back, of one looking ahead or looking aside, of one bending or stretching, is the stiffening, the making stiff, the state of being made stiff of the body, the intimation, the making known, the state of being made known - this is that material phenomenon that is bodily intimation." For consciousness arising as "I shall step forward" or "I shall step back" originates material form. Therein, the wind element that is consciousness-originated, within these eight material groups consisting of the earth element, water element, fire element, wind element, and colour, odour, flavour, and nutritive essence dependent thereon - that stiffens, sustains, moves, causes to step forward, and causes to step back the material body co-arisen with itself.

Therein, in a single adverting process, among the seven impulsions, the wind element originated by the first consciousness is able to stiffen and sustain the material body co-arisen with itself, but is unable to move it repeatedly. The same method applies also to the second and so on. But the wind element originated by the seventh consciousness, having obtained the supporting condition of the wind element originated by the six preceding consciousnesses, is able to stiffen, sustain, move, cause to step forward, cause to step back, cause to look ahead, cause to look aside, cause to bend, and cause to stretch the material body co-arisen with itself. Thereby going arises, coming arises, going and coming arise. It brings about the state of being describable as "he has gone one league" or "he has gone ten leagues."

Just as when a cart is to be pulled by seven yokes, the oxen yoked to the first yoke are able to stiffen and sustain the yoke, but they do not turn the wheel; the same method applies to the second and so on; but when, having yoked the oxen to the seventh yoke, a skilled charioteer, sitting at the front, taking the reins, strikes the oxen with a goad-stick starting from all those in front, then all of them, becoming of one strength, both sustain the shaft and turn the wheels. They bring about the state of being describable as "having taken the cart, they have gone ten leagues or twenty leagues." This should be understood in this manner.

Therein, the consciousness-originated body is not intimation; however, there is one mode of alteration capable of being a condition for steadying, sustaining, and moving the material body co-arisen with the consciousness-originated wind element - this is called intimation. It is not consciousness-originated like the eight material phenomena. But just as, because ageing and death belong to phenomena classified as impermanence and so forth, it is said "Ageing and death, monks, are impermanent, conditioned" etc., so too, because of being the intimation-quality of consciousness-originated material phenomena, it too is called consciousness-originated.

It is called intimation because of its making known. What does it make known? A single bodily action. For one standing within the range of sight raises a hand or a foot, or moves the head or an eyebrow - this appearance of the hands and so forth is cognisable by the eye. But intimation is not cognisable by the eye; it is cognisable only by the mind. For with the eye one sees only the visible object that is moving in the manner of hand-gestures and so forth. But one knows the intimation by reflecting with mind-door consciousness, thinking "This one is making this or that happen, it seems."

Just as in the forest, in the dry season, at a place where there is water, people tie palm leaves and such things to the tops of trees so that by this sign others will know of the existence of water there; they raise a flag at the entrance of a tavern; or the wind strikes and shakes a tall tree; when fish move in the water below, bubbles rise to the surface; and at the edges of the path where a great flood has passed, a heap of grass, leaves, and refuse is left piled up. There, having seen the palm leaves, the flag, the swaying of the branch, the bubbles, and the heap of grass, leaves, and refuse, just as one knows by mind-consciousness what is unseen by the eye - "Here there will be water, here there will be liquor, this tree will have been struck by the wind, there will be fish in the water below, the flood will have passed covering this much area" - even so, intimation too is not cognisable by the eye but is cognisable only by the mind. For with the eye one sees only the visible object that is moving in the manner of hand-gestures and so forth. But one knows the intimation by reflecting with mind-door consciousness, thinking "This one is making this or that happen, it seems."

And this is called intimation not merely because of its making known. It is also called intimation because of its being knowable. For this is evident even to others, even to animals. For dogs, jackals, crows, oxen, and so forth gathered here and there, when a gesture of striking is shown by taking up a stick or a clod, knowing "This one wishes to strike us," they flee in one direction or another. But there is also a time when it is not evident to another who is behind a wall or enclosure and so forth. Although at that moment it is not evident, because it is evident to those who are face to face, it is indeed called intimation.

But when the consciousness-originated body moves, does the body originated by the three other causes move or not? It too moves in the same way. It follows the same course and conforms to it. Just as when water flows, dry sticks, grass, leaves, and so forth that have fallen into the water also follow the course of the water - when it flows, they flow; when it stops, they stop - This should be understood in this manner. Thus this intimation among consciousness-originated material phenomena should be understood as the door of bodily action.

But whatever volition is accomplished at that door, by which one kills a living being, takes what is not given, engages in sexual misconduct, or abstains from killing living beings and so forth - this is called bodily action. Thus, when there is an opponent, the body is the door, and the volition accomplished at that door is bodily action, to be classified as "either wholesome or unwholesome." But when there is no opponent, it should be classified by completing the triad with "or indeterminate." Therein, just as a city gate stands only in the place where it was made and does not move even a finger's breadth from one place to another, yet the great multitude passes through this or that gate, even so a door does not move to another door, but action moves because it arises at this or that door. Therefore the ancients said:

Therein, the door also receives its name from the action, and the action from the door. Just as the places where consciousness and so forth arise receive the names consciousness-door, contact-door, non-restraint-door, and restraint-door, so too the place where bodily action arises receives the name bodily-action-door. The same method applies to the verbal-action-door and mental-action-door as well. Just as a deity dwelling in a particular tree receives its name from that tree - silk-cotton-tree deity, palāsa-tree deity, neem-tree deity, wavy-leaf-fig-tree deity - so too an action done through the body-door receives the name bodily action from the door. The same method applies in the case of verbal action and mental action too. Therein, the body is one thing, the action is another, but because it is done by the body, it is called bodily action. Therefore the commentary teachers said:

Just so.

This being so, neither the determination of the door is fitting, nor the determination of the action. How? For in body-intimation, according to the statement "actions move through the doors," verbal action also occurs; therefore the determination of it as a bodily-action-door is not fitting. And bodily action also occurs in verbal intimation; therefore the determination of it as bodily action is not fitting. No, it is not unfitting. Why? Because of the predominance of occurrence and the abundance of occurrence therein. For bodily action predominantly occurs in body-intimation, not the others; therefore, because of the predominant occurrence of bodily action, its status as the bodily-action-door is established. Just as the status of a brahmin village, mango grove, nāga forest and so forth as a brahmin village and so forth is established - thus the determination of the door is fitting. Bodily action, however, occurs abundantly in the body-door and only slightly in the verbal door. Therefore, because of its abundant occurrence in the body-door, its status as bodily action is established, just as the status of forest-dwellers, fat young girls and so forth as forest-dwellers and so forth is established. Thus the determination of action is also fitting.

The account of the body-action door is concluded.

Discourse on the Door of Verbal Action

In the discussion of the vocal action door, however, speech is threefold by way of volition, abstinence, and sound. Therein, "Monks, speech endowed with four factors is well spoken, not ill spoken, blameless and not censured by the wise"; this is called volition-speech. That which is "the abstaining, refraining from the four kinds of vocal misconduct etc. this is called right speech" - this is called abstinence-speech. "Speech, utterance, articulation, enunciation, voice, vocal act, speech, verbal expression" - this is called sound-speech. Among these, the vocal action door is neither the name for volition nor for abstinence. Together with sound, however, there is one intimation; this is called the vocal action door. With reference to which it was said - "What is that materiality which is vocal intimation? Whatever speech, utterance, verbal path, utterance, sound, act of sounding, speech, verbal expression of one with wholesome consciousness, or of one with unwholesome consciousness, or of one with indeterminate consciousness - this is called speech. Whatever intimation, making known, state of having made known through that speech - this is that materiality which is vocal intimation."

For when one thinks "I shall say this, I shall say that," a sound called the diffusion of applied thought arises. This is not cognisable by ear-consciousness but by mind-consciousness - so it is stated in the Great Commentary. In the Tradition Commentaries, however, "the sound of the diffusion of applied thought" means the sound of those who babble in their sleep and the like, arisen through the diffusion of applied thought; "having heard" means having heard that sound which arose from that person's thinking; by means of that, saying "thus is your mind, so is your mind," he reads the mind - and stories were also told in this connection. In the Paṭṭhāna too, it is stated: "The sound base originated by consciousness is a condition for ear-consciousness by way of object condition." Therefore, there is no such thing as a sound of the diffusion of applied thought that is not cognisable by ear-consciousness and that arises without the striking of intimation. However, consciousness arising as "I shall say this, I shall say that" produces eight kinds of materiality: the earth element, the water element, the fire element, the wind element, colour, odour, flavour, and nutritive essence. Within these, the earth element originated by consciousness arises while striking against the material body that is kamma-born. Together with that striking of elements, sound arises. This is called consciousness-originated sound. This is not intimation. But there is one mode of alteration that is the condition for that consciousness-originated earth element's striking against the kamma-born material body; this is called vocal intimation. From here on, that it is not consciousness-originated like the eight kinds of materiality, etc. - all this should be understood in the same way as stated above.

Here too, having heard the sound of someone calling "Tissa, Datta, Mitta," one reflects on the intimation with mind-door consciousness and knows "this one intends to do this and that, it seems." And like bodily intimation, this too is evident even to animals. For having heard the sound "Come, go," even animals, knowing "this one intends to do this, it seems," both come and go. As to whether the body originated by three causes moves or does not move - this section, however, does not apply here. There is also no function of supporting by the previous consciousness-originated materiality. But whatever volition is accomplished in that vocal door, by which one speaks falsehood, speaks slander, speaks harshly, indulges in idle chatter, or abstains from false speech and the like - this is called vocal action. From here on, all the determination of action and the determination of doors should be understood in the same way as stated above.

The account of the speech-action door is concluded.

Discourse on the Door of Mental Action

In the discussion of the mind-action door, however, mind is fourfold by way of sensual-sphere and so on. Therein, the sensual-sphere is fifty-four-fold, the form-sphere is fifteen-fold, the formless-sphere is twelve-fold, and the supramundane is eightfold - thus altogether it is eighty-nine-fold. Therein, it should not be said that this particular mind does not become a mind-door. For just as it should not be said that this particular volition does not become kamma - for even volition associated with the five types of sense-consciousness is designated as kamma in the Great Treatise - so too it should not be said that this particular mind does not become a mind-door.

Here one asks - What does this so-called kamma do? It strives, it constructs, it accumulates, it wills, it arranges, it plans. This being so, what does the volition of the five types of sense-consciousness strive for, construct, accumulate, will, arrange, and plan? The co-arisen states. For that too strives for, constructs, accumulates, wills, arranges, and plans the co-arisen associated aggregates. Or what is the point of this argument? For that was stated by way of all-inclusive inclusion. But here this is the conclusion - The twenty-nine-fold mind that is wholesome and unwholesome of the three planes is called the mind-action door. But whatever volition is accomplished in that mind-door, by which one takes up covetousness, ill-will, and wrong view, as well as non-covetousness, non-anger, and right view - this is called mind-action. From here on, all the determination of action and the determination of doors should be understood in the same way as stated above. These are the three kamma doors.

The account of the mind-action door is concluded.

The Treatise on Action

Now, having set aside the three kammas, these kamma doors have been shown; taking those as the starting point, the detailed discussion of the remaining matrix-setting of the door-discussion follows. For there are three kammas: bodily action, verbal action, and mental action. But what is this so-called kamma? Volition itself, and certain states associated with volition. Therein, these are the discourses on the kamma-nature of volition:

"Monks, it is volition that I call kamma. Having willed, one performs kamma by body, speech, and mind." "For when there is body, Ānanda, pleasure and pain arise internally owing to bodily volition as cause; when there is speech, Ānanda, pleasure and pain arise internally owing to verbal volition as cause; when there is mind, Ānanda, pleasure and pain arise internally owing to mental volition as cause." "Threefold, monks, is bodily volition that is unwholesome bodily action, having suffering as its outcome, having suffering as its result; fourfold, monks, is verbal volition etc. threefold, monks, is mental volition that is unwholesome mental action, having suffering as its outcome, having suffering as its result; threefold, monks, is bodily volition that is wholesome bodily action, having happiness as its outcome, having happiness as its result; fourfold, monks, is verbal volition etc. threefold, monks, is mental volition that is wholesome mental action, having happiness as its outcome, having happiness as its result." "If, Ānanda, this foolish Samiddhi were to answer the wanderer Pāṭaliputta when asked thus, he should answer thus: 'Having performed intentional kamma, friend Pāṭaliputta, by body, speech, and mind, that is to be felt as pleasant, he feels pleasure' etc. 'that which is to be felt as neither-painful-nor-pleasant, he feels neither-pain-nor-pleasure'; answering thus, Ānanda, the foolish Samiddhi would be answering the wanderer Pāṭaliputta correctly."

These, to begin with, are the suttas establishing the nature of kamma as volition. The nature of kamma of the states associated with volition, however, is shown by the fourfold classification of kamma. For this was said:

"Monks, there are these four actions that I have realised by direct knowledge myself and proclaimed. What are the four? There is, monks, kamma that is dark with dark result; there is, monks, kamma that is bright with bright result; there is, monks, kamma that is both dark and bright with dark and bright result; there is, monks, kamma that is neither dark nor bright with neither dark nor bright result, which leads to the destruction of kamma. And what, monks, is kamma that is neither dark nor bright with neither dark nor bright result, which leads to the destruction of kamma? That is, the seven factors of enlightenment - the enlightenment factor of mindfulness, etc. the equanimity factor of enlightenment. This is called, monks, kamma that is neither dark nor bright with neither dark nor bright result, which leads to the destruction of kamma. And what, monks, is kamma that is neither dark nor bright with neither dark nor bright result, which leads to the destruction of kamma? It is this Noble Eightfold Path - that is to say, right view, etc. right concentration. This is called, monks, kamma that is neither dark nor bright with neither dark nor bright result, which leads to the destruction of kamma."

Thus these fifteen states, classified as factors of enlightenment and path factors, are shown by the fourfold classification of kamma. Together with these six - covetousness, ill will, wrong view, non-covetousness, non-anger, and right view - twenty-one states associated with volition should be understood.

Therein, the supramundane path, when analysed, partakes of the three kinds of kamma, namely bodily kamma and so forth. For the restraint from the misconduct that one transgresses by body should be understood as bodily. The restraint from the misconduct that one transgresses by speech should be understood as verbal. Thus right action is bodily kamma, and right speech is verbal kamma. When these two are included, right livelihood is also included by virtue of being on their side. The restraint from the misconduct that one transgresses by mind, however, should be understood as mental. That is fivefold by way of view, thought, effort, mindfulness, and concentration. This fivefold restraint is also called mental kamma. Thus the supramundane path, when analysed, partakes of the three kinds of kamma.

At this point there is what is called the correlation of doors. For in the body-door and speech-door there is that which has reached agitation but has not reached the course of kamma, and in the mind-door too there is that which has reached occurrence but has not reached the course of kamma; taking that into account, they assigned it as belonging to the respective door.

Herein this is the method - One who, thinking "I shall go hunting," strings a bow, twists a bowstring, sharpens a spear, eats food, and puts on clothes - to this extent, agitation in the body-door has been reached. Having wandered in the forest for a day, he does not obtain even so much as a hare or a cat - is this unwholesome bodily kamma or not? It is not. Why? Because the course of kamma has not been reached. But it should be understood as merely bodily misconduct. The same method applies in the case of catching fish and other such endeavours.

In the case of the speech door too, for one who, having commanded "I shall go hunting" and "Prepare the bows and so forth quickly," in the same manner as before does not obtain anything in the forest, although movement through the speech door has been reached, because a course of action has not been reached, it is not bodily action. It should be understood that it is merely verbal misconduct.

But in the case of the mind door, merely by the arising of murderous volition, there is indeed a distinction of course of action. And that is by way of ill-will, not by way of killing of living beings. For unwholesome bodily action originates in the body door and the speech door, not in the mind door; likewise unwholesome verbal action. But unwholesome mental action originates in all three doors; likewise wholesome bodily, verbal, and mental actions.

How? For one who kills a living being with his own hand, takes what is not given, or engages in sexual misconduct, the action is solely bodily action. The door too is solely the body door. Thus, first, unwholesome bodily action originates in the body door. But covetousness, ill-will, and wrong view, co-arisen with those consciousnesses, are either on the side of volition or are negligible. But for one who commands "Go, deprive so-and-so of life, steal so-and-so's goods," the action is bodily action, but the door is the speech door. Thus unwholesome bodily action originates in the speech door. But covetousness, ill-will, and wrong view, co-arisen with those consciousnesses, are either on the side of volition or are negligible. This much is the agreed commentary of the teachers.

But a sophist says - "Unwholesome bodily action originates in the mind door too." When told "Bring a discourse that has been included in the three collections," he brought this discourse called the Kulumba Sutta:

"Furthermore, monks, here a certain ascetic or brahmin who possesses psychic power and has attained mastery of mind, looks upon the embryo in another's womb with an evil mind: 'Oh, may this embryo in the womb not come forth safely!' Thus, monks, there is destruction of the family."

Having brought this discourse, he said: "By mere thought alone, the embryo in the womb dissolves like a lump of foam. Where here is any movement of a bodily limb or movement of a vocal organ? This unwholesome bodily action originates in the mind door alone."

Having said to him "We shall weigh the meaning of your discourse," they weighed it thus: "You speak of harming others through psychic power. This psychic power is indeed: the psychic power of determination, the psychic power of transformation, the psychic power of the mind-made body, the psychic power of the diffusion of knowledge, the psychic power of the diffusion of concentration, the noble psychic power, the psychic power born of the result of action, the psychic power of the meritorious, the psychic power produced by science, and the psychic power in the sense of succeeding through right application in each case - thus it is tenfold. Among these, which psychic power do you speak of?" "That produced by meditation." "But does the act of harming others occur through psychic power produced by meditation?" "Yes, some teachers say it occurs once"; they say that just as when a pot filled with water is thrown by one wishing to strike another, the pot breaks and the water is lost, so too through psychic power produced by meditation, the act of harming others occurs once. But from that point onwards, it is lost. Then, having said to him "Through psychic power produced by meditation, the act of harming others does not occur even once or twice," they asked him as he came to agreement: "Is psychic power produced by meditation wholesome, unwholesome, or indeterminate? Is it associated with pleasant feeling, associated with painful feeling, or associated with neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling? Is it with applied thought and sustained thought, without applied thought but with sustained thought only, or without applied thought and without sustained thought? Is it of the sensual sphere, of the fine-material sphere, or of the immaterial sphere?"

However, one who knows this matter will say thus: 'The power of development-born psychic power is either wholesome or indeterminate; it is exclusively associated with neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, exclusively without applied thought and without sustained thought, exclusively of the fine-material sphere.' He should be told - 'Which category among the wholesome and so forth does the volition of killing belong to?' One who knows will say: 'The volition of killing is exclusively unwholesome, exclusively associated with painful feeling, exclusively with applied thought and sustained thought, exclusively of the sensual sphere.' 'That being so, your question agrees neither with the wholesome triad, nor with the feeling triad, nor with the applied thought triad, nor with the distinction of spheres.'

'But is such a great discourse then meaningless?' 'No, it is not meaningless; but you do not know its meaning. In the phrase "possessing psychic power, having attained mastery of mind," it is not development-born psychic power that is intended here, but rather sorcery-born psychic power is intended. For that is obtainable here if it can be obtained. But that cannot be performed without resorting to the body-door and the speech-door. For those who possess sorcery-born psychic power, having eaten unsalted food for seven days, having spread out grass on the ground and lying down, having practised austerity, on the seventh day having prepared a charnel ground, standing at the seventh step, rolling their hands round and round, they mutter spells with their mouths. Then their action succeeds. Thus this psychic power too cannot be performed without resorting to the body-door and the speech-door.' The conclusion to be reached here is that 'unwholesome bodily action does not originate at the mind-door.'

However, when one speaks falsehood and so forth by means of hand gestures, the action is verbal action, but the door is the body-door. Thus unwholesome verbal action also originates at the body-door. But covetousness, ill-will, and wrong view, co-arisen with those consciousnesses, are either on the side of volition or are negligible. But when one speaks falsehood and so forth by making a verbal utterance, the action too is verbal action and the door too is the speech-door itself. Thus unwholesome verbal action originates at the speech-door. But covetousness, ill-will, and wrong view, co-arisen with those consciousnesses, are either on the side of volition or are negligible. This much is the agreed commentary of the teachers.

But a sophist says - 'Unwholesome verbal action also originates at the mind-door.' When told 'Bring a discourse that has been included in the three collections,' he brought this discourse from the Uposatha chapter:

"Whatever monk, while the proclamation is being made up to the third time, remembering an existing offence, does not reveal it, he is guilty of deliberate falsehood."

Having brought this discourse, he said: 'Thus one who does not reveal an offence, while remaining silent, incurs another offence. Herein, where is there any movement of a bodily limb or movement of a vocal organ? It is at the mind-door itself that this unwholesome verbal action originates.'

He should be told - "Is this sutta of implicit meaning or of explicit meaning?" "It is of explicit meaning for me." Having said "Do not speak thus, we shall weigh its meaning," he should be questioned thus: "What results from deliberate false speech?" One who knows will say "A dukkaṭa offence results from deliberate false speech." Then he should be told: "The Vinaya has two roots - body and speech; for all offences were laid down by the Perfectly Enlightened One in just these two doors; there is no such thing as laying down an offence at the mind-door. You are exceedingly ignorant of the Vinaya, you who lay down an offence in a situation not laid down by the Teacher; you misrepresent the Perfectly Enlightened One; you strike at the Conqueror's wheel" - having restrained him with such words, a further question should be asked: "Does deliberate false speech originate from action or from inaction?" One who knows will say "From action." Thereupon he should be told - "One who does not disclose - what action does he perform?" Surely, not seeing any action, he will come to distress. Then he should be made to understand by means of the meaning of this sutta. For the meaning here is this: That which is stated as "there is deliberate false speech" - what does it amount to in terms of offence? The meaning is "What offence is there?" "There is a dukkaṭa offence." And that should be understood as an offence arising through inaction at the speech-door, not by the characteristic of false speech, but by the word of the Blessed One. And this too was said -

Thus the conclusion should be reached here that unwholesome verbal action does not originate at the mind-door.

But when, with a mind accompanied by covetousness, moving a bodily limb, one performs acts such as seizing by the hand; with a mind accompanied by ill-will, acts such as handling a stick; with a mind accompanied by wrong view, thinking "Khanda, Siva and others are supreme," one performs acts such as paying homage, making añjali, offering seats and accessories to them - then the action is mental action, but the door is the body-door. Thus unwholesome mental action originates at the body-door. But here the volition is inoperative.

But when, activating the vocal faculty with a mind accompanied by covetousness, one covets another's wealth and possessions thinking "Oh, may what belongs to another be mine," or with a mind accompanied by ill-will says "May these beings be killed, or bound, or destroyed, or may they not exist," or with a mind accompanied by wrong view says "There is nothing given, there is nothing offered" and so forth, then the action is mental action, but the door is the verbal door. Thus unwholesome mental action originates at the verbal door. But here the volition is inoperative.

But when, without activating the bodily or vocal faculties, sitting alone in seclusion one generates states of mind accompanied by covetousness, ill-will, and wrong view, then the action is mental action, and the door too is the mind door itself. Thus unwholesome mental action originates at the mind door. In this case, however, both volition and the states associated with volition originate at the mind door itself. Thus it should be understood that unwholesome mental action originates at all three doors.

Now, regarding what was said "likewise wholesome bodily, verbal, and mental actions," here is the method: When, being unable to speak for some reason, one undertakes the training rules "I abstain from the destruction of life, from taking what is not given, from sexual misconduct" by hand gesture, then the action is bodily action and the door too is the bodily door itself. Thus wholesome bodily action originates at the bodily door. The non-covetousness and so forth accompanying those states of mind are either on the side of volition or inoperative.

But when one undertakes those same training rules by making a verbal utterance, then the action is bodily action, but the door is the verbal door. Thus wholesome bodily action originates at the verbal door. The non-covetousness and so forth accompanying those states of mind are either on the side of volition or inoperative.

But when, while those training rules are being given, without activating the bodily or vocal faculties, one undertakes them by mind alone thinking "I abstain from the destruction of life, from taking what is not given, from sexual misconduct," then the action is bodily action, but the door is the mind door. Thus wholesome bodily action originates at the mind door. The non-covetousness and so forth accompanying those states of mind are either on the side of volition or inoperative.

But the four training rules beginning with "abstinence from false speech" should be understood as wholesome verbal action originating at the three doors when undertaken by bodily means and so forth in the same manner as stated. Here too, the non-covetousness and so forth are either on the side of volition or inoperative.

But when, activating the bodily faculty with states of mind accompanied by non-covetousness and so forth, one performs such acts as sweeping the shrine precincts, offering flowers, garlands, and perfumes, paying homage at shrines, and so forth, the action is mental action, but the door is the bodily door. Thus wholesome mental action originates at the bodily door. But here the volition is inoperative. When, activating the vocal faculty with a mind accompanied by non-covetousness, one is free from covetousness thinking "Oh, may what belongs to another as wealth and possessions not be mine"; when with a mind accompanied by non-ill-will one says "May all beings be free from enmity, free from affliction, free from distress, and may they maintain themselves in happiness"; when with a mind accompanied by right view one declares "There is what is given" and so forth - the action is mental action, but the door is the verbal door. Thus wholesome mental action originates at the verbal door. But here the volition is inoperative. But when, without activating the bodily or vocal faculties, sitting alone in seclusion, one generates states of mind accompanied by non-covetousness and so forth by mind alone, the action is mental action, and the door too is the mind door itself. Thus wholesome mental action originates at the mind door. In this case, however, both volition and the states associated with volition originate at the mind door itself.

Therein, in the case of the destruction of life and taking what is not given originated by command, one who says that the action is bodily action and the door too is the bodily door on account of the action, preserves the action but violates the door. In the case of false speech and so forth originated by hand gesture, one who says that the door is the bodily door and the action too is bodily action on account of the door, preserves the door but violates the action. Therefore, one should not violate the door thinking "I shall preserve the action," nor should one violate the action thinking "I shall preserve the door." Rather, both action and door should be understood in the manner as already stated. For one who explains in this way violates neither the action nor the door.

The Treatise on Action is concluded.

Now, regarding "five types of consciousness, five consciousness-doors" and so forth: eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, and body-consciousness - these are the five types of consciousness. Eye-consciousness-door, ear-... The nose... The tongue... body-consciousness-door - these are the five consciousness-doors. It should be understood that volition arisen by means of these five doors is neither bodily action nor verbal action, but only mental action. Eye-contact, ear-... The nose... The tongue... The body... mind-contact - these are the six contacts. Eye-contact-door, ear-... The nose... The tongue... The body... mind-contact-door - these are the six contact-doors.

Eye-non-restraint, ear-... The nose... The tongue... sensitivity-body-... movement-body-non-restraint, speech-non-restraint, mind-non-restraint - these are the eight types of non-restraint. In meaning, they are these five mental states: moral failure, lack of mindfulness, ignorance, impatience, and laziness. Among these, not even one of these mental states arises in the consciousnesses at the five doors ending with determining; it arises only at the moment of impulsion. Even though arisen at impulsion, it is called non-restraint at the five doors.

For the contact co-arisen with eye-consciousness is called eye-contact, the volition is called mental action, and that consciousness is called the mind-action-door. Here, the fivefold non-restraint does not exist. The contact co-arisen with receiving consciousness is called mind-contact, the volition is called mental action, and that consciousness is called the mind-action-door. Here too, non-restraint does not exist. The same method applies to investigating and determining as well. But the contact co-arisen with impulsion is called mind-contact, the volition is called mental action, and that consciousness is called the mind-action-door. Here, the non-restraint is called eye-non-restraint. The same method applies to the ear-, nose-, tongue-, and sensitivity-body-doors as well. But when, having one of the objects such as visible form and so forth as object, mind-door impulsion arises bringing about movement designated as the body-door alone, without the speech-door, then the contact co-arisen with that consciousness is called mind-contact, the volition is called bodily action, but that consciousness, because movement has arisen, is not reckoned as the mind-door, being of no account. Here, the non-restraint is called movement-body-non-restraint. When just such an impulsion arises bringing about movement designated as the speech-door alone, without the body-door, then the contact co-arisen with that consciousness is called mind-contact, the volition is called verbal action, but that consciousness, because movement has arisen, is not reckoned as the mind-door, being of no account. Here, the non-restraint is called speech-non-restraint. But when such an impulsion consciousness arises being purely the mind-door alone, without the body- and speech-doors, then the contact co-arisen with that consciousness is called mind-contact, the volition is called mental action, and that consciousness is called the mind-action-door. Here, the non-restraint is called mind-non-restraint. Thus, by means of these eight types of non-restraint, eye-non-restraint-door, ear-... The nose... The tongue... sensitivity-body-... movement-body-... speech-... mind-non-restraint-door - these eight non-restraint-doors should be understood.

Eye-restraint, ear- The nose... The tongue... sensitivity-body-... movement-body-... speech-... mind-restraint - these are the eight restraints. In meaning, they are these five mental states: virtue, mindfulness, knowledge, patience, and energy. Among these too, not even one mental state arises in the consciousnesses at the five sense-doors ending with determining. It arises only at the moment of impulsion. Even though arisen at impulsion, it is called restraint at the five sense-doors. The arising of all of this should be understood in the same way as stated regarding non-restraint, beginning with "contact co-arisen with eye-consciousness is eye-contact" etc. Thus, by means of these eight restraints, the eye-restraint door etc. the mind-restraint door - these eight restraint-doors should be understood.

Discourse on Unwholesome Courses of Action

Killing of living beings, taking what is not given, sexual misconduct, false speech, divisive speech, harsh speech, idle chatter, covetousness, ill will, wrong view - these are the ten unwholesome courses of action.

Therein, the destruction of a living being is killing of living beings; it is said to be slaying of a living being, slaughter of a living being. "Living being" here means, in conventional terms, a being; in the ultimate sense, the life faculty. The killing of living beings is the murderous volition, in one who perceives a living being as a living being, that arises through an effort to cut off the life faculty, occurring through one or another of the doors of body and speech. That, among living beings devoid of virtues such as animals and so on, is of little fault in the case of a small living being, and of great fault in the case of a large-bodied one. Why? Because of the greatness of the effort involved. Even when the effort is equal, because of the greatness of the object. Among those endowed with virtues, such as human beings and so on, it is of little fault in the case of one of few virtues, and of great fault in the case of one of great virtues. But when body and virtues are equal, it should be understood as of little fault when the mental defilements and the effort are mild, and of great fault when they are intense.

There are five requisite factors of it - a living being, the perception of it as a living being, a murderous mind, the effort, and death thereby. There are six modes of action - by one's own hand, by command, by throwing, by a fixed device, by magical knowledge, and by supernormal power. However, when this matter is elaborated upon, it becomes excessively lengthy. Therefore, we shall not elaborate upon it. Other such matters should be taken up by those who are interested by examining the Samantapāsādikā, the commentary on the Vinaya.

The taking of what is not given is "taking what is not given"; it means the carrying off of another's property, theft, robbery. Therein, "not given" means belonging to another, where another, exercising ownership as he wishes, is not deserving of punishment and is blameless. In the case of one who perceives as belonging to another that which belongs to another, the volition of theft, aroused by the effort of taking it, is taking what is not given. That is of little blame when the property of another is inferior, and of great blame when it is superior. Why? Because of the superiority of the object. When the objects are equal, it is of great blame in respect of the property belonging to those of superior virtue. Taking as reference one of greater virtue in each case, it is of little blameworthiness in regard to the property belonging to one of lesser virtue in each case.

There are five requisite factors of it - belonging to another, perception of it as belonging to another, intention to steal, effort, and carrying away by that means. There are six modes of action - just those beginning with one's own hand and so on. And these operate, as appropriate, by way of these five kinds of carrying off: carrying off by theft, carrying off by force, carrying off by concealment, carrying off by scheming, and carrying off by fraud. This is the summary here. But the detail is stated in the Samantapāsādikā.

As for "wrong conduct in sensual pleasures," herein "in sensual pleasures" means in sexual intercourse; "wrong conduct" means conduct that is entirely blameworthy and base. But by characteristic, sexual misconduct is the volition that transgresses an improper object, occurring through the body-door with the intention of sexual intercourse.

Therein, "a person who should not be approached" means: for men, first, there are the ten beginning with one guarded by the mother: one guarded by the mother, one guarded by the father, one guarded by both mother and father, one guarded by a brother, one guarded by a sister, one guarded by relatives, one guarded by the clan, one guarded by co-religionists, one who has a protector, and one for whom a penalty has been decreed - these are the ten beginning with one guarded by the mother; one bought with wealth, one living together by consent, one living together for possessions, one living together for cloth, one whose hand has been dipped in water, one whose head-pad has been removed, a slave who is also a wife, a worker who is also a wife, one carried off by a banner, and a temporary wife - these are the ten beginning with one bought with wealth, making twenty women in all. Among women, however, for the twelve women - the two, namely one who has a protector and one for whom a penalty has been decreed, and the ten beginning with one bought with wealth - other men constitute the person who should not be approached.

And this misconduct is of little fault when the improper object is devoid of virtues such as morality and so on, and of great fault when endowed with virtues such as morality and so on. There are four requisite factors of it - an object that should not be approached, the intention to engage with that object, the effort of engaging, and the consenting to the union of the paths. There is one mode of action, which is only by one's own hand.

"Falsely" means a verbal effort or a bodily effort that destroys the welfare of one who has the intention of deceiving. With the intention to deceive, the volition that gives rise to the bodily and verbal action of deceiving another is false speech. Another method - "falsely" means an unreal, untrue matter. "Speech" means the communicating of that as factual, as true. But by characteristic, false speech is the volition that gives rise to the intimation as true, of one who wishes to communicate to another an untrue subject matter as true. It is of little blameworthiness when the matter it destroys is small, and of great blameworthiness when it is great. Furthermore, for householders, that which occurs by way of saying "there is not," etc., out of unwillingness to give what is one's own, is of little blameworthiness. That which is spoken as a witness for the purpose of destroying another's welfare is of great blameworthiness. For those gone forth, having obtained even a little oil or ghee, that which occurs by way of exaggerated talk with the intention of jest, such as "today in the village oil flows like a river, it seems," is of little blameworthiness. But for those who speak by way of saying what has not been seen as seen, etc., it is of great blameworthiness.

There are four requisite factors of it - an untrue subject matter, a mind intent on deceiving, the appropriate effort, and the other's cognition of that meaning. There is one mode of execution - by one's own hand only. And that should be understood in the performance of an act of deceiving another by body, or by something connected with the body, or by speech. If by that act the other person knows that meaning, one is bound by the action of false speech at the very moment of the volition that gives rise to the act. Since, however, just as one deceives another by body, by something connected with the body, or by speech, so too one who commands 'Say this,' one who writes a letter and sends it forth, and one who writes and places on walls and so forth 'This matter should be understood thus'; therefore here the modes of execution by command, by sending forth, and by a fixed device are also applicable. However, since they have not come down in the commentaries, they should be accepted after investigation.

Regarding 'divisive speech' and so forth: the speech by which one who speaks that speech creates in the heart of the person to whom it is spoken one's own dearness and the other's emptiness - that is divisive speech. But that by which one makes both oneself and the other harsh, speech which is itself harsh, neither pleasant to the ear nor touching the heart - this is 'harsh speech.' That by which one talks frivolously, pointlessly - that is 'idle chatter.' The volition that is their root also obtains the designation of divisive speech and so on. And it is that very volition which is intended here.

Therein, the volition that instigates bodily and verbal action, arising from a defiled mind, either for the purpose of dividing others or out of desire to be dear oneself, is called divisive speech. It is of little blame when the one whose division it effects is of little virtue, and of great blame when of great virtue.

There are four requisite factors of it - the priority of division, thinking 'The other is to be divided,' or 'These will become separate,' or 'They will be apart'; or the desire to be dear, thinking 'Thus I shall become dear and trusted'; the corresponding effort; and the other's understanding of that meaning. But when the others are not divided, there is no completion of the course of action; it is completed only when they are divided.

The absolutely harsh volition that instigates bodily and verbal action that cuts to the quick of another is 'harsh speech.' For the purpose of making this manifest, here is a story - It is said that a certain boy, not heeding his mother's words, goes to the forest. His mother, unable to make him turn back, cursed him saying 'May a fierce buffalo pursue you.' Then indeed a buffalo arose for him in the forest in just that way. The boy made an act of truth saying 'May what my mother said with her mouth not come to be; may what she thought in her mind come to be.' The buffalo stood right there as if bound. Thus even an action that wounds the vital spots, due to the gentleness of mind, is not harsh speech. For parents sometimes say to their children even thus: 'May robbers cut you to pieces,' yet they do not wish even a lotus petal to fall upon them. And teachers and preceptors sometimes say to their dependants thus - 'What are these shameless and reckless ones doing? Drive them out'; yet they wish for them the attainment of learning and realisation. And just as due to the gentleness of mind it is not harsh speech, so too due to the gentleness of words it is not non-harsh speech. For the words of one who wishes to have someone killed, 'Make him lie down comfortably,' are not non-harsh speech. Rather, due to the harshness of mind, that is indeed harsh speech. It is of little blame when the one in reference to whom it is uttered is of little virtue, and of great blame when of great virtue. There are three requisite factors of it - another who is to be abused, an angry mind, and the abusing.

The unwholesome volition that gives rise to bodily and verbal exertion conveying what is meaningless is 'frivolous talk'. It is of little blameworthiness when practised infrequently. It is of great blameworthiness when practised extensively. There are two requisite factors of it - the intention to engage in pointless talk such as the tale of the Bhārata war, the abduction of Sītā, and so forth; and the actual telling of such talk. But when others do not take up that talk, there is no completion of the course of action; it is completed only when the idle chatter is taken up by another.

One covets, thus it is 'covetousness'. The meaning is that it proceeds by being directed towards another's goods and by inclination towards that. Its characteristic is coveting another's property thus: 'Oh, may what is yours be mine.' It is of little fault and of great fault, like taking what is not given. There are two requisite factors of it - another's goods, and the diverting to oneself. For even when greed has arisen with another's property as its object, there is no completion of the course of action until one appropriates it to oneself thus: 'Oh, may this be mine.'

One destroys welfare and happiness, thus it is 'ill-will'. That has the characteristic of mental corruption for the destruction of another. It is of little fault and of great fault, like harsh speech. There are two requisite factors of it - another being, and the thought of his destruction. For even when anger has arisen with another being as its object, there is no completion of the course of action until one thinks of that being's destruction thus: 'Oh, may this one be cut off, may this one perish.'

One sees wrongly through the absence of grasping things as they really are, thus it is 'wrong view'. Its characteristic is distorted seeing in such a way as 'there is nothing given', etc. It is of little fault and of great fault, like idle chatter. Furthermore, the undetermined is of little fault, the determined is of great fault. There are two requisite factors of it - the distortion of the manner in which the object is grasped, and its presenting itself in accordance with the way one grasps it. Therein, the completion of the course of action occurs only with the nihilist view, the non-causality view, and the non-action view, not with other views.

The determination of these ten unwholesome courses of action should be understood in five ways - as to mental state, as to category, as to object, as to feeling, and as to root.

Therein, 'as to mental state': in these, the first seven in sequence are volition-states only; the last three beginning with covetousness are associated with volition.

'As to category': the first seven in sequence, together with wrong view, these eight are courses of action only; they are not roots. Covetousness and anger are both courses of action and roots. For covetousness, when taken as a root, becomes 'greed, an unwholesome root'; ill-will becomes 'hatred, an unwholesome root'.

"As to object": the destruction of life has formations as object, since its object is the life faculty. Taking what is not given has either a being as object or formations as object. Sexual misconduct has formations as object by way of the tangible; some say it has a being as object. False speech has either a being as object or formations as object. Likewise divisive speech. Harsh speech has only a being as object. Idle chatter, by way of what is seen, heard, sensed, and cognised, has either a being as object or activities as object. Likewise covetousness. Anger has only a being as object. Wrong view, by way of phenomena of the three planes, has only activities as object.

"As to feeling": the destruction of life is accompanied by painful feeling. Although kings, even while laughing upon seeing a thief, say "Go and execute him," their decisive volition is associated with painful feeling only. Taking what is not given has three feelings. For one who is delighted and pleased upon seeing another's goods, there is pleasant feeling when taking; for one who is frightened and terrified when taking, there is painful feeling. Likewise for one who reviews the resultant and natural-consequence fruits. But for one who stands in a neutral state at the time of taking, there is neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. Sexual misconduct has two feelings, by way of pleasant and neutral. But in the decisive consciousness, neutral feeling does not occur. False speech has three feelings, in the same way as stated for taking what is not given; likewise divisive speech. Harsh speech has unpleasant feeling. Idle chatter has three feelings. For when others give applause and throw up cloths and the like, at the time of telling tales of the abduction of Sītā, the Bhārata war, and so forth, while one is delighted and pleased, it is accompanied by pleasant feeling. When one who was previously given wages comes back later and is told "Tell it from the beginning," at the time of telling while distressed, thinking "Shall I or shall I not tell a disconnected, miscellaneous tale?" it is accompanied by painful feeling; when one tells in a neutral state, it is accompanied by neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. Covetousness has two feelings, by way of pleasant and neutral; likewise wrong view. Anger has unpleasant feeling.

"As to root": the destruction of life has two roots, by way of hate and delusion. Taking what is not given, by way of hate and delusion or by way of greed and delusion. Sexual misconduct, by way of greed and delusion. False speech has either hate and delusion or greed and delusion as roots; likewise divisive speech and idle chatter. Harsh speech, by way of hate and delusion. Covetousness has one root, by way of delusion; likewise ill will. Wrong view has two roots, by way of greed and delusion.

The treatise on the unwholesome courses of action is finished.

Discourse on Wholesome Courses of Action

The abstinences from killing living beings and so forth, together with non-covetousness, non-anger, and right view - these are the ten wholesome courses of action. Therein, killing living beings and so forth have already been explained in meaning. They abstain from killing living beings and so on by means of this, or it itself abstains, or it is merely the act of abstaining - thus abstinence. The abstinence associated with wholesome consciousness of one who abstains from killing living beings, stated thus: "whatever at that time is the abstaining, the refraining from killing living beings" - that, by classification, is threefold: abstinence by encountering the occasion, abstinence by undertaking, and abstinence by eradication.

Therein, the abstinence that arises for those who have not undertaken the training rules, who, having reflected upon their own birth, age, learning, and so forth, thinking "it is not fitting for us to do such evil," do not transgress the object that has come before them - this should be understood as "natural abstinence." As in the case of the lay follower Cakkana in the island of Sīhaḷa. It is said that when he was still young, a disease arose in his mother. And the physician said: "It would be suitable to obtain the flesh of a live hare." Then Cakkana's brother sent Cakkana, saying: "Go, dear, wander about in the field." He went there. And at that time a hare had come to eat the young crop. Seeing him, it ran swiftly and, caught in a creeper, made the sound "kiri kirī." Cakkana, going towards that sound, seized it and thought: "I shall make medicine for my mother." Then he thought again - "This is not fitting for me, that I should deprive another of life for the sake of my mother's life." Then he released it, saying: "Go, enjoy grass and water in the forest together with the hares." And when asked by his brother, "Dear, was a hare obtained?" he told him what had happened. Then his brother abused him. He went to his mother's presence and, having declared the truth, "Since I was born, I do not recall having deliberately deprived a living being of life," he stood there. At that very moment his mother became well.

But the abstinence that arises for those who have undertaken the training rules, who do not transgress the object, having given up even their own life both in the undertaking of the training rules and beyond that - this should be understood as "abstinence by undertaking." As in the case of the lay follower dwelling at Uttaravaḍḍhamāna mountain. It is said that he, having taken the training rules in the presence of the Elder Piṅgalabuddharakkhita dwelling at the Ambariya monastery, was ploughing a field. Then his ox went missing. Searching for it, he climbed Uttaravaḍḍhamāna mountain. There a great serpent seized him. He thought - "I shall cut off its head with this sharp axe." Then he thought again - "This is not fitting for me, that I, having taken the training rules in the presence of a venerable teacher, should break them." Having thought thus up to the third time, thinking "I give up my life, not the training rules," he threw the sharp-bladed axe placed on his shoulder into the forest. At that very moment the great fierce serpent released him and went away.

Abstinence associated with the noble path, however, should be understood as "abstinence by eradication," from the arising of which onwards, even the thought "I shall kill a living being" does not arise in noble persons.

Now, just as with the unwholesome, so too the analysis of these wholesome courses of action should be understood in five aspects: by way of mental states, by way of categories, by way of object, by way of feeling, and by way of root.

Therein, "by way of mental states" means that in these, in sequence, the seven can be volitions as well as abstinences; the last three are exclusively associated with volition.

"By way of categories" means that in sequence the seven are merely courses of action, not roots. The last three are both courses of action and roots. For non-covetousness, when taken as a root, becomes "non-greed is a wholesome root." Non-anger becomes "non-hate is a wholesome root," and right view becomes "non-delusion is a wholesome root."

"By way of object" means that the objects of the destruction of life and so forth are the very objects of these. For abstention exists only in relation to what is to be transgressed. But just as the noble path, having Nibbāna as its object, abandons the mental defilements, so these courses of action, though devoid of the life faculty and so on as objects, should be understood as abandoning the immoralities of killing living beings and so on.

"By way of feeling" means that all are either accompanied by pleasant feeling or by neutral feeling. For having reached the wholesome, there is no such thing as unpleasant feeling.

"By way of root" means that in sequence the seven courses of action, for one who abstains with consciousness associated with knowledge, have three roots by way of non-greed, non-hate, and non-delusion; for one who abstains with consciousness dissociated from knowledge, they have two roots. Non-covetousness, for one who abstains with consciousness associated with knowledge, has two roots; for one who abstains with consciousness dissociated from knowledge, it has one root. But non-greed does not become a root of itself by itself. The same method applies to non-anger too. Right view has only two roots by way of non-greed and non-hate. These are the ten wholesome courses of action.

Discourse on the Comparison of Courses of Action

Now, at this point, what should be understood is the correlation of courses of action. For non-restraint arisen by way of the five sense-contact doors is exclusively unwholesome mental action. That arisen by way of the mind-contact door becomes all three kinds of action - for when it reaches the point of bodily movement at the body door, it is unwholesome bodily action; at the speech door, unwholesome verbal action; when it has not reached the point of movement at either, it is unwholesome mental action. Non-restraint arisen by way of the five non-restraint doors is also exclusively unwholesome mental action. That arisen by way of the bodily-movement non-restraint door is exclusively unwholesome bodily action; that arisen by way of the speech non-restraint door is exclusively unwholesome verbal action; that arisen by way of the mental non-restraint door is exclusively unwholesome mental action. The threefold bodily misconduct is exclusively unwholesome bodily action; the fourfold verbal misconduct is exclusively unwholesome verbal action; the threefold mental misconduct is exclusively unwholesome mental action.

Restraint arisen by way of the five sense-contact doors is also exclusively wholesome mental action. That arisen by way of the mind-contact door, however, like non-restraint, becomes all three kinds of action. That arisen by way of the five restraint doors is also exclusively wholesome mental action; that arisen by way of the bodily-movement restraint door is exclusively wholesome bodily action; that arisen by way of the speech restraint door is exclusively wholesome verbal action; that arisen by way of the mental restraint door is exclusively wholesome mental action. The threefold bodily good conduct is exclusively wholesome bodily action; the fourfold verbal good conduct is exclusively wholesome verbal action; the threefold mental good conduct is exclusively wholesome mental action.

Unwholesome bodily action does not arise by way of the five sense-contact doors; it arises only by way of the mind-contact door. Likewise unwholesome verbal action. Unwholesome mental action, however, arises by way of the six sense-contact doors; when that has reached the stage of activating the body and speech doors, it becomes unwholesome bodily and verbal action; when it has not reached the stage of activation, it is only unwholesome mental action. Just as by way of the five sense-contact doors, so too by way of the five non-restraint doors, unwholesome bodily action does not arise; but it arises by way of the bodily-activation non-restraint door and by way of the verbal non-restraint door; it does not arise by way of the mental non-restraint door. Unwholesome verbal action also does not arise by way of the five non-restraint doors; it arises by way of the bodily-activation and verbal non-restraint doors; it does not arise by way of the mental non-restraint door. Unwholesome mental action arises by way of all eight non-restraint doors. The same method applies to wholesome bodily action and so on.

But this is the distinction - whereas unwholesome bodily action and verbal action do not arise by way of the mental non-restraint door, these do not follow that pattern. For these arise even at the mental restraint door for one who undertakes the training rules without activating bodily or verbal faculties. Therein, wholesome consciousness of the sensual sphere arises by way of the three action doors, but does not arise by way of the five sense-consciousness doors; but by the method stated as "whatever feeling arises conditioned by eye-contact, whether pleasant, painful, or neither-painful-nor-pleasant," it arises by way of the six sense-contact doors; it does not arise by way of the eight non-restraint doors, but arises by way of the eight restraint doors; it does not arise by way of the ten unwholesome courses of action, but arises by way of the ten wholesome courses of action; therefore, whether this consciousness has arisen by way of the three action doors, or by way of the six sense-contact doors, or by way of the eight restraint doors, or by way of the ten wholesome courses of action, when it is said "wholesome consciousness of the sensual sphere has arisen etc. having a visual object, or etc. having a mental object," everything has been stated.

The account of the doors is concluded.

Herein, the construction of "referring to whatever else" is as follows - among the visual objects and so on stated above, referring to a visual object, the meaning is "having made it an object." Or referring to a sound as object etc. or referring to a mental object, it has arisen. To this extent, among these objects of this consciousness, any single object is as if permitted. And this, having arisen at one time referring to a visual object for one person, arises again at another time referring to one or another object among sounds and so on for another person as well. And for this arising thus, there is no such sequence that in one existence the occurrence first refers to a visual object and afterwards to a sound as object. And among visual objects and so on, there is also no such fixed rule that first there is a blue object and afterwards a yellow object. Thus, in order to show this capacity for all objects, the absence of sequence, and the absence of fixed rule among blue, yellow and so on even in the absence of sequence, he said "referring to whatever else." This is what is meant - among these visual objects and so on, not just any single one, but rather referring to whatever else it has arisen. And even while arising thus, without arising in the manner "first referring to a visual object, afterwards referring to a sound as object," it has arisen referring to whatever else; the meaning is "having made whatever object among visual objects and so on, whether in reverse order or in forward order, or by the method of alternate intervals of one or two, it has arisen." And even among visual objects, without arising by the fixed rule "first a blue object, afterwards a yellow object," referring to whatever else, the meaning is "it has arisen referring to whatever visual object among blue, yellow and other visual objects." The same method applies also to sound as object and so forth. This is one construction so far.

But this is another interpretation - "That which has form as its object" is "having a visual object" etc. "That which has a mental state as its object" is "having a mental object." Thus, having said "consciousness having a visual object, or etc. having a mental object, has arisen," he then said again "or referring to whatever else." Its meaning is - among these forms and so on, in the manner stated above, referring to whatever it may be, it has arisen. In the Great Commentary, however, regarding the "or whatever" clause, having said "there is nothing new, what was taken before is simply taken again," only this much has come: "referring to form, or etc. referring to a mental state, or referring to this or that - this was said in order to express this."

The Section on the Enumeration of Dhammas

Explanation of the Group with Contact as the Fifth

"At that time" - this is the counter-indication statement that definitively specifies the time that was indicated indefinitely. Therefore, the meaning to be understood is: "At whatever time wholesome consciousness of the sensual sphere has arisen, at that very time there is contact etc. there is non-distraction." Therein, just as consciousness, so also regarding contact and the rest, there is contact. What happens? The construction should be made by way of applicable terms, in the manner of "it is of the sensual sphere, it is wholesome, it has arisen, it is accompanied by pleasure," and so on. For in the case of feeling, "accompanied by pleasure" and in the case of the wisdom faculty, "associated with knowledge" are not applicable; therefore it is said "by way of applicable terms." This is an independent view of the commentary teachers; but it should not be regarded as essential.

But why is contact stated first here? Because it is the first impingement of consciousness. For consciousness having first impinged upon the object, contact arises touching the object; therefore it is stated first. But having touched through contact, one feels through feeling, perceives through perception, wills through volition. Therefore it was said - "Having been touched, monks, one feels; having been touched, one perceives; having been touched, one wills."

Furthermore, just as a pillar, when it comes to a palace, is a strong condition for the remaining building materials - the cross-beams, joists, walls, pedestals, pinnacles, rafters, wing-pieces, bolts, and door-frames are bound to the pillar and established upon the pillar - so too contact is a strong condition for co-arisen associated mental states. For it is like the pillar. The remaining states are like the building materials. For this reason too it is stated first. But this is not a valid reason. For regarding mental states arisen in a single consciousness, it is not possible to say "this one arose first, this one afterwards." Even for the status of being a strong condition, no reason is seen for contact. Rather, contact is stated first merely by way of the teaching order. For it would also be fitting to present it as: "there is feeling, there is contact; there is perception, there is contact; there is volition, there is contact; there is consciousness, there is contact; there is feeling, there is perception; there is volition, there is applied thought." But it should be understood that contact is stated first merely by way of the teaching order. And just as here, so also regarding the remaining mental states, no sequence of before and after should be sought. Rather, the mental states should be investigated by way of their verbal meaning, characteristic, function, and so on.

That is: It touches, thus it is contact (phassa). This has the characteristic of touching, the function of striking together, the manifestation of meeting, and the proximate cause of an object that has come into range.

For this, although being an immaterial phenomenon, occurs in the manner of touching the object - thus it has the characteristic of touching. And though not clinging on one side - just as visible form strikes the eye, and sound strikes the ear - it strikes together consciousness and the object, thus it has the function of striking together. Or, because it arises from the striking together of base and object, it should be understood as having the function of striking together in the sense of accomplishment as well. For this was said in the commentary - "For there is no contact of the four planes that does not have the characteristic of touching. The function of striking together, however, belongs only to that occurring at the five sense-doors. For the contact occurring at the five sense-doors has both the designation 'having the characteristic of touching' and 'having the function of striking together'; that occurring at the mind-door has only the designation 'having the characteristic of touching', not 'having the function of striking together'."

And having said this, this discourse was brought forth - "Just as, great king, two rams might fight, among them, just as one ram, so should the eye be regarded; just as the second ram, so should visible form be regarded; just as their collision, so should contact be regarded." Thus contact has the characteristic of touching and the function of striking together. "Just as, great king, two cymbals might be clapped together, etc. two palms might be clapped together, just as one palm, so should the eye be regarded; just as the second palm, so should visible form be regarded; just as their collision, so should contact be regarded. Thus contact has the characteristic of touching and the function of striking together" - this is the detail.

Or just as in passages such as "having seen a visible form with the eye", eye-consciousness and so on are expressed by the name 'eye' and so forth, so too here they should be understood as expressed by the name 'eye' and so forth. Therefore, in passages such as "so should the eye be regarded", the meaning should be understood by this method as "so should eye-consciousness be regarded". This being so, because of the striking together of consciousness and object, in this discourse too, it is established that it has the function of striking together by way of function alone.

And because it is made known by way of its own cause, which is called the coincidence of the three, it has the manifestation of coincidence. For this is made known here and there by way of its cause thus: "The meeting of the three is contact." And the meaning of this discourse passage is: through the meeting of the three there is contact; not that the mere meeting itself is contact.

And because it is thus made known, it manifests in that very manner, thus it is said to have the manifestation of coincidence. But in the sense of result, by way of manifestation, this is called having the manifestation of feeling. For this produces feeling - that is the meaning of "it causes to arise". And just as, when producing, heat that is dependent on the element called lac, though conditioned by external warmth, causes softness in its own support, not in the external warmth called spent embers which is its own condition - so too, though conditioned by other conditions called base and object, because it is dependent on consciousness, this produces feeling only in consciousness which is its own support, not in the base or the object which are its own conditions - thus it should be understood. And because it arises without obstruction in an object that has been examined by the appropriate attention and by the faculty, it is called "having the proximate cause of an object that has come into range".

It feels - thus feeling (vedanā). It has the characteristic of experiencing, the function of enjoying, or the function of partaking of the desirable aspect, the manifestation of mental relish, and the proximate cause of tranquillity.

For there is no feeling of the four planes that does not have the characteristic of experiencing. Having said "the function of enjoying, however, is found only in pleasant feeling," and then rejecting that view, having said "whether it be pleasant feeling, painful feeling, or neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, all have the function of enjoying," this meaning was elucidated: When it comes to the domain of enjoying the taste of the object, the remaining associated mental states experience only a portion. For contact has merely the function of touching, perception has merely the function of recognising, volition has merely the function of willing, and consciousness has merely the function of cognising. But absolutely, by sovereignty, by authority, and by mastery, it is feeling alone that experiences the taste of the object.

For feeling is like a king, and the remaining mental states are like a cook. Just as a cook, having prepared food of various flavours, having placed it in a casket, having sealed it, having brought it down before the king, having broken the seal, having opened the casket, having taken the choicest portions of all the curries and side dishes, having placed them in dishes, swallows them for the purpose of testing whether they are faulty or faultless, and then offers the food of various excellent flavours to the king. The king, by sovereignty, by authority, being the master, eats whatever he wishes. Therein, just as the cook's mere testing of the food, so is the remaining mental states' partial experiencing of the taste of the object. Just as the cook tests only a portion of the food, so the remaining mental states experience only a portion of the taste of the object. But just as the king, by sovereignty, by authority, being the master, eats as he pleases, so too feeling, by sovereignty, by authority, and by mastery, experiences the taste of the object. Therefore it is said to have the function of enjoying.

In the second alternative interpretation, the feeling intended here, in whatever way it may be, partakes only of the desirable aspect of the object, thus it is said to have the function of partaking of the desirable aspect. And because of mental relish, this is said to have the manifestation of mental relish, referring to its presenting itself by its own intrinsic nature. And because "one whose body is tranquil experiences happiness," therefore it should be understood as having tranquillity as its proximate cause.

Perception is that which perceives an object differentiated into blue and so on. It has the characteristic of perceiving and the function of recognising again. For there is no perception of the four planes that does not have the characteristic of recognising. All have the characteristic of recognising. But that which recognises by means of a distinguishing mark has the function called re-cognising.

Its occurrence should be understood as follows: at the time when a carpenter, having made a mark on a piece of timber, later re-identifies it by that mark; at the time when a person, having noted a distinguishing mark such as a dark mole etc., later re-identifies him as "this is so-and-so" by that mark; and at the time when the king's ornament-keeper and treasurer, having tied a name-label to each ornament, when told "bring the ornament called such-and-such," lights a lamp, enters the jewel chamber, reads the label, and brings that very ornament.

Another method - In the all-inclusive sense, perception has the characteristic of recognising. It has the function of making a sign as a condition for re-recognising, like carpenters etc. with timber etc. It has the manifestation of causing adherence by way of the sign as apprehended, like the blind men who examined the elephant. Or it has the manifestation of not remaining long due to its superficial engagement with the object, like lightning. It has the proximate cause of the object as it presents itself, like the perception "men" that arose in young deer regarding scarecrows. But that perception which is here associated with knowledge simply follows knowledge. In relation to the earth element etc. together with their constituents, the remaining mental states should be understood as being like the earth element etc.

"It wills" - thus it is volition; the meaning is that together with itself it directs the associated mental states towards the object. Its characteristic is willing, meaning its characteristic is the nature of volition. Its function is accumulating. For there is no volition of the four planes that does not have the characteristic of willing. All have the characteristic of willing. But the function of accumulating exists only in wholesome and unwholesome states. For when it comes to the domain of accumulating wholesome and unwholesome kamma, the remaining associated mental states have only a partial function. But volition has extraordinary zeal and extraordinary effort, double zeal and double effort. Therefore the ancients said: "This volition is established in the nature of a landowner." "Landowner" means the owner of a field. Just as a landowner, taking fifty-five labourers, enters the field together with them thinking "I shall reap." His zeal is extraordinary, his effort is extraordinary, his zeal is double, his effort is double; he says "Take without interruption" and so forth, points out the boundary, knows their liquor, food, garlands, and so forth, and keeps the path level. This should be understood as comparable in this way. For volition is like the landowner. The fifty-five wholesome mental states arisen as constituents of consciousness are like the fifty-five labourers. Just as the time when the landowner has double zeal and double effort, so when it comes to the domain of accumulating wholesome and unwholesome kamma, volition has double zeal and double effort. Thus should its function of accumulating be understood.

And it manifests as coordinating. For this manifests itself as coordinating, accomplishing both its own task and the tasks of others, like the chief pupil, the master carpenter, and so forth. Just as the chief pupil, seeing the preceptor coming from afar, while himself studying, sets the other pupils to their own respective study tasks - for when he begins to study, they too study, because they follow him. And just as the master carpenter, while himself carving, sets the other carpenters to their own respective carving tasks - for when he begins to carve, they too carve, because they follow him. And just as the commander-in-chief, while himself fighting, sets the other warriors to the activity of combat - for when he begins to fight, they too fight without retreating, because they follow him. So too this volition, while itself engaged in its own task regarding the object, sets the other associated mental states to their own respective activities. For when it has begun its own task, those associated with it also begin. Therefore it was said - "Accomplishing both its own task and the tasks of others, like the chief pupil, the master carpenter, and so forth." And in recollecting urgent tasks and so forth, this should be understood as becoming evident through its manner of arousing zeal in the associated states.

The meaning of the word "consciousness" has already been stated in the manner: "It cognises the object, thus it is consciousness." But in terms of characteristic and so forth, consciousness has the characteristic of cognising, the function of being a forerunner, the manifestation of connecting, and the proximate cause of name-and-form. For there is no consciousness of the four planes that does not have the characteristic of cognising. All have the characteristic of cognising. But when it comes to the sense doors, at the point of making the object clear, consciousness is the forerunner, the precursor. For a visible object seen by the eye is cognised by consciousness alone, etc. A mental object cognised by the mind is cognised by consciousness alone. Just as a city guardian, sitting at a crossroads in the middle of the city, observes and determines each person who comes, thinking "This one is a resident, this one is a visitor" - thus should this be seen. And this was stated by the Great Elder: "Just as, great king, a city guardian sitting at a crossroads in the middle of the city would see a man coming from the eastern direction... from the western... from the southern... from the northern direction would see a man coming - so too, great king, what one sees as a visible form with the eye, that one cognises with consciousness; what one hears as a sound with the ear, smells as an odour with the nose, tastes as a flavour with the tongue, touches as a tangible with the body, cognises as a mental object with the mind, that one cognises with consciousness." Thus when it comes to the sense doors, at the point of making the object clear, consciousness itself is the forerunner, the precursor. Therefore it is called "having the function of being a forerunner."

That consciousness, arising as each successive one, making each preceding one without interval, manifests as nothing but continuation - thus it has continuation as its manifestation. In the five-constituent existence, its proximate cause is invariably mentality-materiality; in the four-constituent existence, mentality alone is the proximate cause. Therefore it is said to have mentality-materiality as its proximate cause.

But is this consciousness one and the same as the consciousness previously indicated, or is it different? It is one and the same. Then why is what was previously indicated stated again? This was not examined in the commentary. But here this is the reasoning: Just as the sun and so forth, being designated in dependence upon materiality and so forth, are not in reality different from materiality and so forth, and therefore at whatever time the sun rises, at that time its materiality in the form of heat also exists. Even when stated thus, there is no sun that is different from materiality and so forth. Consciousness is not like that; it is designated in dependence upon mental states such as contact and so forth; but in reality it is indeed different from them. Therefore it should be understood that this is stated again for the purpose of illuminating the meaning that "at whatever time consciousness has arisen, at that very time it is absolutely different in reality from contact and so forth."

And just as in the passage "at whatever time one develops the path for rebirth in the fine-material realm, etc. the earth kasiṇa, at that time there is contact, there is feeling" and so forth, when the occasion has been determined by the one who develops, that which develops does not in reality arise, and therefore just as it is said there "there is contact, there is feeling," it is not said "that which develops, that exists." But in the passage "at whatever time wholesome consciousness of the sensual sphere has arisen" and so forth, the consciousness that determined the occasion is not thus in reality non-arising. It should be understood that this is stated again for the purpose of illuminating the meaning that just as at that time "there is contact, there is feeling," so too "consciousness also exists." But here this is the conclusion - For the purpose of inclusion in the synopsis section and for the purpose of analysis in the exposition section - for by the former word "consciousness," merely the occasion was determined. But for the purpose of showing the mental states that exist at that occasion determined by consciousness, "there is contact" and so forth was begun. And consciousness too indeed exists at that time. Therefore this is stated again for the purpose of including that as well. And if it were not stated in this place, it would not be possible to analyse in the exposition section "what is consciousness at that time." Thus its very analysis would be lost. Therefore it should be understood that this is stated also for the purpose of analysing it in the exposition section.

Or because in the passage "has arisen," the statement that consciousness has arisen is merely the heading of the teaching, and "consciousness does not arise alone" has been examined in the commentary, therefore in the passage "has arisen" here too, not merely consciousness alone was taken, but consciousness together with more than fifty wholesome mental states was taken. Thus, having taken all consciousness and mental states in brief there, "there is contact" and so forth was begun here to show them in detail by their own nature. Thus it should be understood that consciousness too is stated just like contact and so forth.

The Section on the Enumeration of Dhammas

Explanation of the Group of Jhāna Factors

It thinks, thus it is applied thought; or the act of thinking is applied thought; it is said to mean lifting up. This has the characteristic of placing the mind upon the object. For it places the mind upon the object. Just as someone ascends to the royal palace by relying upon a king's favourite, or a relative, or a friend, so consciousness ascends to the object by relying upon applied thought. Therefore it is said to have the characteristic of placing the mind upon the object. But the Elder Nāgasena said: Applied thought has the characteristic of striking. "Just as, great king, when a drum is struck, it afterwards resounds and reverberates, even so, great king, applied thought should be seen as the striking. Sustained thought should be seen as the subsequent resounding and reverberating." This has the function of striking and re-striking. For thus indeed it is said that by means of it one who practises meditation makes the object struck by applied thought and repeatedly struck by applied thought. Its manifestation is the bringing of the mind to the object.

Consciousness moves about in the object by means of it, thus it is sustained thought (vicāra); or sustained thought is the act of moving about. It is said to mean continued movement. This has the characteristic of rubbing along the object. Therein, its function is the sustained application of conascent states. It is manifested as the continued connection of consciousness. Even though there is sometimes no separation between them, applied thought is, by reason of its coarseness, its precedence, and its function of fixing, like the striking of a bell, and is the first impact of the mind upon the object. Sustained thought, by reason of its subtlety and its nature of rubbing along, is like the reverberation of a bell, and is the continued connection. Herein, applied thought is diffusive, being the agitation of consciousness at the time of initial arising. It is like the flapping of the wings of a bird wishing to fly up into the sky. And like the descent towards a lotus of a bee whose mind is bound to the scent. Sustained thought is of peaceful conduct, being the state of not-excessive-agitation of consciousness, like the spreading of the wings of a bird that has flown up into space, and like the circling of a wasp that has descended towards a lotus, over the upper part of the lotus.

In the commentary, however, it is said: "Applied thought is that which occurs by way of fixing the mind upon the object, like the flight of a great bird in the sky after catching the wind with both wings and settling its wings. For it, being one-pointed, presses on, like the flight of one causing its wings to flap for the purpose of catching the wind. Sustained thought occurs by way of rubbing along. For it rubs along the object," it is said, and that accords very well with its occurrence through continued connection. But that distinction between them becomes obvious in the first and second meditative absorptions. Furthermore, just as when one firmly holds a stain-covered bronze vessel with one hand and polishes it with the other hand using powder, oil, and a ball of wool, the hand that holds firmly is like applied thought, and the hand that polishes is like sustained thought. Likewise, applied thought is like the hand that presses down when a potter strikes the wheel with a stick and makes a vessel; sustained thought is like the hand that moves here and there. Likewise, applied thought is like the spike that stands fixed in the middle when making a circle, being the fixing; sustained thought is like the spike that revolves around the outside, being the rubbing along.

It gladdens, thus it is joy (pīti). It has the characteristic of endearment. Its function is the refreshing of body and mind, or the function of pervading. It is manifested as elation. And this is fivefold: minor rapture, momentary rapture, recurring rapture, uplifting rapture, and pervading rapture.

Therein, minor rapture is able only to cause goose-flesh on the body. Momentary rapture is like the arising of lightning, moment by moment. Flooding joy, like a wave on the seashore, breaks upon the body again and again. Uplifting joy is powerful, reaching the extent of causing one to spring up into the air, lifting the body upwards. Thus indeed, the Elder Mahātissa, who dwelt at Puṇṇavallikā, having gone to the terrace of the shrine on the evening of the full-moon day and having seen the moonlight, facing the Great Shrine, thinking "At this hour the four assemblies are worshipping the Great Shrine," aroused uplifting joy with the Buddha as object through a naturally seen object, and like a painted ball struck on a plastered floor, he sprang up into the sky and alighted on the very terrace of the Great Shrine.

Likewise, a certain daughter of good family in the village of Vattakālaka, near the Girikaṇḍaka monastery, also leapt into the air through uplifting joy with a powerful object of the Buddha. Her parents, it is said, going to the monastery in the evening for the purpose of hearing the Dhamma, went saying: "Dear, you are heavy with child, you cannot go about at an untimely hour; we shall listen to the Dhamma having shared the merit with you." She, though wishing to go, being unable to refuse their words, remained behind at home, and standing at the door of the house, looking by moonlight at the open terrace of the shrine in the sky at Girikaṇḍaka, she saw the lamp-offering at the shrine. And she heard the four assemblies making offerings of garlands, perfumes and the like to the shrine and circumambulating it, and the sound of the group recitation of the community of monks. Then, as she was looking at the shrine resembling a heap of pearls, uplifting joy arose in her, thinking: "Fortunate indeed are those people who, having gone to the monastery, are able to walk about in such a shrine terrace and to hear such sweet Dhamma talk." She, having leapt into the air, descended from the sky onto the shrine terrace even before her parents, and having paid homage to the shrine, stood listening to the Dhamma. Then her parents, having arrived, asked her: "Dear, by which path did you come?" She, having said "I came through the air, not by the road," when asked "Dear, it is those with taints destroyed who travel through the air; how did you come?" replied: "As I stood looking at the shrine by moonlight, powerful joy with the Buddha as object arose in me; then I was aware of neither my standing state nor my sitting state, but having leapt into the air by means of the very sign that had been apprehended, I became established on the shrine terrace." Thus uplifting joy is capable of causing one to leap into the air.

But when pervading joy has arisen, the entire body becomes suffused, like a filled bladder that has been inflated, or like a mountain cave into which a great flood of water has rushed. And this fivefold joy, maturing and reaching fulfilment, fulfils the twofold tranquillity: tranquillity of body and tranquillity of consciousness. Tranquillity, maturing and reaching fulfilment, fulfils the twofold happiness: bodily and mental. Happiness, taking hold and reaching maturity, fulfils the threefold concentration - momentary concentration, access concentration, and absorption concentration. Of these, setting aside that which fulfils absorption concentration, the other two are applicable here.

It makes happy, thus it is happiness; the meaning is that it makes happy that in which it arises. Or it well devours and destroys bodily and mental affliction - thus happiness. This is a name for pleasant feeling. Its characteristic and so forth should be understood in the same way as stated in the section on feeling.

Another method - Happiness has the characteristic of gratification, the function of intensifying associated states, and the manifestation of sustaining. Even though there is sometimes no separation between joy and happiness, joy is the contentment at obtaining a desirable object; happiness is the experiencing of the flavour of what has been obtained. Where there is joy, there is happiness. Where there is happiness, there is not necessarily joy. Rapture is included in the aggregate of mental activities; happiness is included in the aggregate of feeling. Joy is like the sight and report of water at the edge of a forest for one exhausted in a desert. Happiness is like entering the shade of the forest and using the water.

Just as a man who has set out upon a great desert road, overcome by heat, thirsty and parched, having seen a man on the way, might ask "Where is there drinking water?" He might say "Having crossed beyond the forest, there is a natural lake with a dense thicket; having gone there, you will obtain it." He, having heard his words, would become glad and elated. Then, going along, seeing lotus petals, stalks, leaves and so forth fallen on the ground, becoming even more glad and elated, going along he might see men with wet clothes and wet hair, might hear the sounds of jungle fowl, peacocks and so forth, might see a blue forest thicket resembling a net of jewels grown at the edge of the natural lake, might see lotuses, red lotuses, white water-lilies and so forth grown in the lake, might see clear, limpid water. He, becoming more and more glad and elated, having descended into the natural lake, having bathed and drunk as he pleased, with his distress allayed, having eaten lotus fibres, lotus stalks, lotus leaves and so forth, having adorned himself with blue lotuses and so forth, having placed mandālaka roots on his shoulders, having come out, having put on his garment, having placed his wet garment in the sun, lying down in cool shade with a gentle breeze blowing, might say "Oh happiness, oh happiness!" This should be seen as having the same accomplishment.

For that man's state of being glad and elated from the time of hearing about the natural lake with its dense thicket up to the seeing of the water is like joy, which has the nature of gladness and elation regarding the preliminary object. The time of lying down after having bathed and drunk, with a gentle breeze blowing in the cool shade, saying "Oh happiness, oh happiness!" is like happiness, which has attained strength and is established in the nature of experiencing the flavour of the object. It should be understood that this was said because of their becoming obvious at each respective time. And where there is joy, there too is happiness - this has already been stated.

"Unified focus of mind" means the state of one-pointedness of consciousness; this is the name for concentration. Regarding its characteristic and so forth, in the commentary it is first stated thus: "Concentration has the characteristic of pre-eminence and the characteristic of non-distraction." Just as the pinnacle of a gabled house is pre-eminent because of binding together the remaining building materials, so too concentration is pre-eminent among all wholesome mental states because all those mental states succeed through the concentrated mind. Therefore it was said -

"Just as, great king, whatever rafters there are of a gabled house, all of them go to the peak, incline to the peak, converge at the peak, and the peak is declared to be their chief, so too, great king, whatever wholesome mental states there are, all of them incline to concentration, slope towards concentration, tend towards concentration, and concentration is declared to be their chief."

And just as when it comes to the army, wherever the army sinks, the king goes to that very place, and at whatever place he has gone, the army is replenished, and the opposing army, being broken, follows the king himself, so too concentration has the characteristic of non-distraction because of not allowing the co-arisen mental states to be scattered or dispersed.

There is, however, another method: This concentration, reckoned as unified focus of mind, has the characteristic of non-wandering or the characteristic of non-distraction; it has the function of consolidating co-arisen mental states, like water for bathing powder; it has the manifestation of peace or the manifestation of knowledge. For it is said: "One who is concentrated knows and sees things as they really are." In particular, it has happiness as its proximate cause, and should be seen as the steadiness of the mind like the steadiness of a flame in a windless place.

Explanation of the Group of Faculties

They have faith by means of it, or it itself has faith, or it is merely the act of having faith - thus it is faith. That itself, because of overcoming faithlessness, is a faculty in the sense of predominance. Or it is a faculty because it exercises the function of a chief in the characteristic of resolution. Faith itself as a faculty is the faith faculty. And this faith has the characteristic of clarifying and the characteristic of plunging forward.

Just as the water-clearing gem of a wheel-turning monarch, when cast into water, causes the mud, algae, duckweed and dirt to settle, makes the water clear, limpid and untroubled, so too faith, when arising, suppresses the hindrances, causes the defilements to settle, clarifies the mind and makes it untroubled. With a clarified mind, the practising son of good family gives gifts, undertakes moral precepts, performs the observance day duties and begins meditation. Thus far, faith should be understood as having the characteristic of clarifying. Therefore the Venerable Nāgasena said -

"Just as, great king, a wheel-turning monarch, having set out on a highway with a fourfold army, were to cross a small stream of water, and that water would become stirred up by the elephants, horses, chariots, and foot soldiers - turbid, agitated, and muddy - and the wheel-turning monarch, having crossed over, would command the men: 'Bring drinking water, my good fellows, I shall drink it.' And the king would have a water-clarifying gem. 'Yes, your majesty,' those men, having assented to the wheel-turning monarch, would cast that water-clarifying gem into the water. The moment it was cast into the water, the mud, algae, and waterweeds would disappear, and the sediment would settle, and the water would become clear, limpid, and undisturbed; then they would offer drinking water to the wheel-turning monarch - 'Let your majesty drink the water.'

"Just as, great king, the water, so should consciousness be regarded. Just as those men, so should the practitioner be regarded. Just as the mud, algae, waterweeds, and sediment, so should the defilements be regarded. Just as the water-clarifying gem, so should faith be regarded. Just as when the water-clarifying gem is cast in, the mud, algae, and waterweeds disappear and the sediment settles, and the water becomes clear, limpid, and undisturbed, even so, great king, when faith arises it suppresses the hindrances, and consciousness becomes free from hindrances - clear, limpid, and undisturbed."

Just as, however, upon reaching a great river full of crocodiles, sea-monsters, ogres, and demons, timid people stand on both banks. But a battle-hero, a great warrior, having come and asked 'Why are you standing here?' and being told 'We dare not enter because of the danger,' having taken a well-sharpened sword, says 'Come behind me, do not be afraid,' and entering the river, warding off the crocodiles and other creatures as they come, leads the people safely from the near bank to the far bank. And from the far bank too he brings them safely to the near bank. Even so, for one giving gifts, keeping virtue, performing the observance, and undertaking meditation, faith is the forerunner and the leader. Therefore it is said: 'Faith has the characteristic of plunging forward.'

Another method - Faith has the characteristic of trusting, or the characteristic of confidence. It has the function of clarifying, like a water-clarifying gem, or the function of plunging forward, like one who crosses a flood. Its manifestation is absence of turbidity, or its manifestation is disposition. Its proximate cause is something worthy of faith, or the factors of stream-entry as its proximate cause; it should be regarded as like hands, wealth, and seeds.

The state of one who is vigorous is energy, or the action of the vigorous is energy. Or that which should be aroused and set in motion by method, way, and means is energy. That itself, because of its overcoming of sloth, is a faculty in the sense of predominance. Or it exercises the function of the chief in the characteristic of uplifting, thus it is a faculty. Energy itself as a faculty is the energy faculty. This energy has the characteristic of supporting and the characteristic of uplifting. Just as a dilapidated house stands by means of a newly added supporting pillar, even so the practitioner, being supported by the support of energy, does not decline or deteriorate in any wholesome mental states. Thus its characteristic of supporting should be understood. Therefore the Elder Nāgasena said:

"Just as, great king, a man might support a falling house with another piece of timber, and being thus supported that house would not fall, even so, great king, energy has the characteristic of supporting; supported by energy, all wholesome mental states do not decline and do not deteriorate."

Just as when a small army and a large army are engaged in battle and the small army retreats, then they report to the king, the king sends reinforcements, and strengthened by them the own army defeats the enemy army, so too energy does not allow co-arisen associated mental states to retreat or fall back, but uplifts and sustains them. Therefore it is said "energy has the characteristic of sustaining."

Another method - Energy has the characteristic of exertion, the function of supporting co-arisen states, the manifestation as the state of non-collapse, and from the statement "one stirred with urgency strives wisely" it has spiritual urgency as its proximate cause, or the bases for arousing energy as its proximate cause. It should be seen as the root of all attainments when rightly initiated.

They remember by means of it, or it itself remembers, or it is merely the act of remembering - thus it is mindfulness. That itself, because of overcoming forgetfulness, is a faculty in the sense of predominance, or it is a faculty because it exercises the function of a chief in the characteristic of presence. Mindfulness itself as a faculty is the mindfulness faculty. This mindfulness has the characteristic of not drifting away and the characteristic of taking up. Just as the king's treasurer, while guarding the tenfold treasure, reminds and causes the king to remember his sovereign prosperity morning and evening, so too mindfulness causes one to notice and remember wholesome mental states. Therefore the Elder said -

"Just as, great king, the treasurer of a wheel-turning monarch reminds the wheel-turning monarch morning and evening of his glory - 'So many elephants, your majesty, so many horses, so many chariots, so many foot soldiers, so much silver, so much gold, so much of all property - may your majesty remember this' - so too, great king, mindfulness does not let wholesome mental states drift away - these are the four foundations of mindfulness, these are the four right strivings, these are the four bases of spiritual power, these are the five faculties, these are the five powers, these are the seven factors of enlightenment, this is the noble eightfold path, this is serenity, this is insight, this is true knowledge, this is liberation, these are the supramundane mental states. Thus, great king, mindfulness has the characteristic of non-floating."

Just as the guide-jewel of a wheel-turning monarch, knowing what is harmful and beneficial to the king, drives away the harmful and brings near the beneficial, so too mindfulness, having sought out the courses of beneficial and harmful mental states, removes harmful mental states thinking "these mental states such as bodily misconduct are harmful," and takes up beneficial mental states thinking "these mental states such as bodily good conduct are beneficial." Therefore the Elder said -

"Just as, great king, the guide-jewel of a wheel-turning monarch knows what is beneficial and harmful to the king - 'these are beneficial to the king, these are harmful, these are helpful, these are unhelpful' - and thereupon removes the harmful and takes up the beneficial, so too, great king, mindfulness when arising seeks out the courses of beneficial and harmful mental states - 'these mental states are beneficial, these mental states are harmful, these mental states are helpful, these mental states are unhelpful' - and thereupon removes harmful mental states and takes up beneficial mental states. Thus, great king, mindfulness has the characteristic of taking up."

Another method - Mindfulness has the characteristic of not drifting away, the function of not forgetting, the manifestation as guarding, or the manifestation as the state of facing the object, and has firm perception as its proximate cause, or the foundations of mindfulness of the body and so forth as its proximate cause. Because of being firmly established on the object, it should be seen as like a post, and because of guarding the eye-door and so forth, it should be seen as like a doorkeeper.

Concentration is that which rightly holds and places the mind on the object. That itself, because of overcoming distraction, is a faculty in the sense of predominance. Or it is a faculty because it exercises the function of a chief in the characteristic of non-distraction. Concentration itself as a faculty is the concentration faculty. Its characteristic and so forth should be understood in the same way as stated above.

"One understands" (pajānāti) - thus it is wisdom (paññā). What does one understand? The noble truths, by the method beginning with "this is suffering." In the commentary, however, it is said "it makes known - thus it is wisdom." What does it make known? It makes known as impermanent, as suffering, as non-self. That itself, because of overcoming ignorance, is a faculty in the sense of predominance. Or it is a faculty because it exercises the function of a chief in the characteristic of seeing. Wisdom itself as a faculty is the wisdom faculty. This wisdom has the characteristic of illuminating and the characteristic of understanding. Just as when a lamp is lit at night in a four-walled house, darkness ceases and light appears, so too wisdom has the characteristic of illuminating. There is no light equal to the light of wisdom. For one who is wise, seated in a single cross-legged posture, the ten-thousand world-system becomes a single light. Therefore the Elder said -

"Just as, great king, a man were to bring a lamp into a dark house, and the lamp, having entered, would dispel the darkness, generate radiance, display light, and make visible forms, even so, great king, wisdom, when it arises, dispels the darkness of ignorance, generates the radiance of knowledge, displays the light of understanding, and makes manifest the noble truths. Thus indeed, great king, illuminating is the characteristic of wisdom."

Just as a skilled physician knows what foods are suitable and unsuitable for the sick, so wisdom, when it arises, discerns mental states that are wholesome and unwholesome, to be cultivated and not to be cultivated, inferior and superior, dark and bright, with counterpart and without counterpart. And this too was said by the General of the Teaching - "'He discerns, he discerns' - thus, friend, he is called 'one possessed of wisdom.' And what does one understand? 'This is suffering' - one understands" - this should be expanded. Thus its characteristic of understanding should be known.

Another method - Wisdom has the characteristic of penetrating things according to their own nature; or the characteristic of unerring penetration, like the penetration of an arrow shot by a skilled archer. Its function is to illuminate the object, like a lamp. Its manifestation is non-delusion, like a good guide who has gone into the forest.

"It cognises" - thus it is mind (mano); the meaning is: it knows. The commentary teachers, however, said - Like one measuring with a measuring vessel, or like one weighing with a great balance, it measures and knows the object - thus it is mind (mano). That itself, in the characteristic of cognising, exercises the function of a ruler - thus it is a faculty. Mind itself as a faculty is the mind faculty (manindriya). This is a synonym for consciousness stated above.

The mind that is beautiful through association with joy and pleasure is "sumano" (glad-minded). The state of being glad-minded is pleasure (somanassa). In the characteristic of agreeableness, it exercises the function of a ruler - thus it is a faculty. Pleasure itself as a faculty is the pleasure faculty (somanassindriya). This is a synonym for feeling stated above.

The phenomena associated with it live by means of it - thus life. It exercises the function of lordship in the characteristic of maintenance - thus faculty. Life itself is the faculty - thus the life faculty. That has authority over the continuity of occurrence. The life faculty has the characteristic of maintenance of phenomena inseparable from itself by way of characteristic and so on; its function is causing them to occur; its manifestation is the establishing of those very phenomena; its proximate cause is the phenomena that are to be sustained. Even though there is this arrangement of the characteristic of maintaining and so forth, it maintains those mental states only at the moment of their existence, like water maintains lotuses and the like; and it protects mental states even though they have arisen through their own conditions, like a nurse protects a child; and it occurs only in connection with the mental states that it itself sustains, like a helmsman; it does not make them occur beyond the moment of dissolution, because of the non-existence of both itself and those that are to be sustained; and it does not establish them at the moment of dissolution, because it itself is breaking up, like the oil of a wick that is being consumed maintains the flame of a lamp. And it should be understood that it is not devoid of the power of maintaining, sustaining, and establishing at the aforesaid moments, because of its accomplishing each of those functions at each respective moment.

Explanation of the Group of Path Factors

Among right view and the rest, right view is in the sense of seeing. Right thought is in the sense of application, right effort is in the sense of exertion, right mindfulness is in the sense of establishing, and right concentration should be understood as in the sense of non-distraction. As for the verbal meaning, however, one sees rightly, or by means of it they see rightly - thus it is right view. One thinks rightly, or by means of it they think rightly - thus it is right thought. One strives rightly, or by means of it they strive rightly - thus it is right effort. One remembers rightly, or by means of it they remember rightly - thus it is right mindfulness. One is rightly concentrated, or by means of it they are rightly concentrated - thus it is right concentration. Furthermore, a praiseworthy or excellent view is right view. By this method too, their verbal meaning should be understood. The characteristic and so forth, however, have already been stated above.

Explanation of the Group of Powers

Among the power of faith and the rest too, faith and the rest have the same meanings as already stated. But they should be understood as powers in the sense of being unshakeable. Thus, among these, it does not waver in faithlessness - this is the power of faith. It does not waver regarding idleness - this is the power of energy. "One does not waver regarding unmindfulness" - this is the power of mindfulness. "One does not waver regarding restlessness" - this is the power of concentration. "Power of wisdom" means one does not waver regarding ignorance. It does not waver in shamelessness - this is the power of shame. It does not waver in lack of moral fear - this is the power of moral fear. This is the explanation of meaning by way of both terms.

Therein, the first five have already been elucidated above by way of their characteristics and so forth. In the latter pair, one is ashamed of bodily misconduct and so forth - this is shame; it is a designation for moral embarrassment. One dreads those very same things - this is moral fear; it is a designation for alarm regarding evil. In order to show their distinction, having set down this matrix - "by origin, by predominance, by the characteristic of embarrassment and fear" - this detailed exposition was stated.

Shame is of internal origin; moral fear is of external origin. Shame has self as predominant; moral fear has the world as predominant. Shame is established in the nature of embarrassment; moral fear is established in the nature of fear. Shame has the characteristic of respectfulness; moral fear has the characteristic of one who fears faults and sees danger.

Therein, one produces internally originated shame for four reasons - Having reviewed one's birth, having reviewed one's age, having reviewed one's valour, and having reviewed one's great learning. How? "This doing of evil is not the action of those accomplished in birth; this is the action of those of low birth such as fishermen and the like. It is not fitting for one such as myself, accomplished in birth, to do this action." Thus, by reflecting on one's birth and not committing evil such as the destruction of life and so forth, one arouses shame. Likewise, "This doing of evil is an action to be done by the young; it is not fitting for one such as myself, established in mature age, to do this action." Thus, by reflecting on one's age and not committing evil such as the destruction of life and so forth, one arouses shame. Likewise, "This evil action is the action of those of a weak nature, not of those of a valorous nature. It is not fitting for one such as myself, endowed with valour, to do this action." Thus, by reflecting on one's valour and not committing evil such as the destruction of life and so forth, one arouses shame. Likewise, "This evil action is the action of the blind and foolish, not of the wise. It is not fitting for one such as myself, who is wise and learned, to do this action." Thus, by reflecting on one's learning and not committing evil such as the destruction of life and so forth, one arouses shame. Thus one arouses internally originated shame through four reasons. And having produced it, having introduced shame into one's own mind, one does not commit evil deeds. Thus shame is of internal origination.

How is moral fear of external origination? If you commit evil action, you will become one deserving of reproach in the four assemblies.

Thus one who reviews, through externally originated moral fear, does not commit evil deeds. Thus moral fear is externally originated.

How is shame with oneself as predominant? Here a certain clansman, making himself the authority and chief, thinking "It is not fitting for one such as myself, gone forth out of faith, learned, a bearer of the austere practices, to do evil action," does not commit evil. Thus shame is with oneself as predominant. Therefore the Blessed One said - "He, having made himself the authority and chief, abandons the unwholesome and develops the wholesome, abandons the blameworthy and develops the blameless, and maintains himself in purity."

How is moral fear with the world as predominant? Here a certain son of good family, having made the world the authority and foremost, does not commit an evil deed. As he said - "Great indeed is this world-community. In this great world-community there are recluses and brahmins who possess psychic powers, who have the divine eye, who know the minds of others; they see even from afar, though near at hand they are not seen, and they discern the mind with their mind. They too will know me thus: 'Look at this clansman who, having gone forth out of faith from the household life into homelessness, dwells beset by evil unwholesome states.' There are deities who possess psychic powers, who have the divine eye, who know the minds of others. They see even from afar, though near at hand they are not seen, and they discern the mind with their mind. They too will know me thus: 'Look at this clansman who, having gone forth out of faith from the household life into homelessness, dwells beset by evil unwholesome states.' etc. He, having made the world itself the authority and chief, abandons the unwholesome and develops the wholesome, abandons the blameworthy and develops the blameless, and maintains himself in purity." Thus moral fear is with the world as predominant.

Shame is established in the nature of bashfulness, moral fear is established in the nature of dread. Here, "bashfulness" means the manner of being ashamed; shame is established in that nature. "Dread" means fear of the lower realms; moral fear is established in that nature. Both of those are obvious in the avoidance of evil. For one person, just as a son of good family, when relieving himself of excrement and urine and so forth, upon seeing someone before whom it is fitting to be ashamed, would become disposed to bashfulness and feel abashed, so too, having entered upon the quality of being ashamed within himself, he does not commit evil action. A certain person, having become frightened by fear of the realms of misery, does not commit an evil deed.

Herein this is the simile - Just as among two iron balls, one might be cool and smeared with dung, and one hot and blazing. Therein a wise person, being disgusted because of its being smeared with dung, does not take the cool one, and the other because of fear of burning. Therein, just as the not taking of the cold one is due to disgust at its being smeared with excrement, so is the not doing of evil through having entered upon the quality of being ashamed within oneself. Just as the not taking of the hot one is due to fear of being burnt, so should the not doing of evil through fear of the lower realms be understood.

Shame has the characteristic of respectfulness, moral fear has the characteristic of one who dreads faults and sees danger. This pair too is evident only in the avoidance of evil. For one person, having aroused shame with the characteristic of respectfulness through four causes - reflection on the greatness of one's birth, reflection on the greatness of the Teacher, reflection on the greatness of one's heritage, and reflection on the greatness of one's fellow practitioners in the holy life - does not commit evil. Another, having aroused moral fear with the characteristic of one who dreads faults and sees danger through four causes - fear of self-reproach, fear of reproach by others, fear of punishment, and fear of an unhappy destination - does not commit evil. Therein, reviewing the greatness of birth and so on, and fear of self-censure and so on, should be expounded in detail.

Explanation of the Group of Roots

They do not covet by means of it, or one does not covet oneself, or it is merely the absence of coveting - this is non-greed. The same method applies also to non-hate and non-delusion. Among these, non-greed has the characteristic of the mind's non-attachment to the object, or the characteristic of non-clinging, like a water drop on a lotus petal. Its function is non-seizing, like a liberated monk. It is manifested as a state of non-adherence, like a person who has fallen into filth. Non-hate has the characteristic of non-ferocity, or the characteristic of non-opposition, like a supportive friend. Its function is the removal of resentment, or the function of removing burning distress, like sandalwood. It is manifested as agreeableness, like the full moon. Non-delusion has already been elucidated by its characteristic and so forth above under the heading of the wisdom faculty.

Among these three, non-greed is the opponent of the stain of miserliness, non-hate is the opponent of the stain of moral corruption, and non-delusion is the opponent of non-development of wholesome mental states. Herein, non-greed is the cause of generosity, non-hate is the cause of virtue, and non-delusion is the cause of mental development. Among these, through non-greed one takes without excess, because the greedy one takes excessively. Through non-hate one takes without deficiency, because the hateful one takes deficiently. Through non-delusion one takes without distortion, because the deluded one takes in a distorted manner.

Through non-greed, one bearing in mind an existing fault as a fault, operates in regard to faults; for a greedy person conceals faults. Through non-hate, one bearing in mind an existing virtue as a virtue, operates in regard to virtues; for a hateful person disparages virtues. Through non-delusion, one bearing in mind the real nature as the real nature, operates in regard to the real nature. For a deluded person apprehends what is true as untrue and what is untrue as true. Through non-greed, the suffering of separation from the beloved does not arise, because of the greedy person's nature of attachment and inability to endure separation from the beloved. Through non-hate, the suffering of association with the displeasing does not arise, for because of the hateful person's nature of aversion and inability to endure association with the displeasing. Through non-delusion, the suffering of not obtaining what is wished for does not arise, for because of the non-deluded person's capacity for such reflection as "where indeed could that be obtained?"